The Dual Form of Cognition During the Middle Ages
GA 206
5 August 1921, Dornach
[ 1 ] During my recent lectures I have brought forward a few things with the view of explaining the modern life of the spirit and its possibilities of development for the future. I have said that we should observe the events which have taken place in the course of human evolution, events that have led up to a soul-constitution which characterises the modern life of the spirit.
[ 2 ] Let us once more bear in mind a few things which characterise this modern life of the spirit. By departing from various standpoints, we have gradually struggled through to the conclusion that the fundamental note of this modern life of the spirit is intellectualism, the intellectual, understanding attitude towards the world and man. This does not contradict the fact that in our times the essential character of a world-conception is sought in the observation and elaboration of external phenomena which can be observed through the senses. This, in particular, will be unfolded in the next few days. We may say that intellectualism, as such, has made its first appearance in the course of human evolution during the time comprised within the 300 years prior to the Mystery of Golgotha, and then it has gradually developed to a height which has not been surpassed during the three centuries subsequent to the Mystery of Golgotha. We may say that in the course of about six centuries, humanity has been trained to take up intellectualism. Intellectualism developed from out a spiritual world-conception, which began to ebb at that time, in the course of those six centuries. External documents (I have already called attention to this fact) hardly enable us to study the ebb of this world-conception, because the spreading of Christianity did its utmost to destroy, with but a few exceptions, every gnostic document.
Within the evolution of human world-conceptions, these gnostic documents represent that particular element which has, on the one hand, taken up something from older traditions, from what existed in Asia, Africa and southern Europe in the form of an ancient wisdom, from what could still be reached in these later times, in accordance with the faculties of human beings who were no longer able to rise to great heights of super-sensible vision. This older form of wisdom, the last echoes of which may still be found in the pre-Socratic philosophers and which contains last, pale gleams of Plato's arguments, this world-conception did not work with intellectual forces; essentially speaking, its contents were obtained through super-sensible vision, even if this was instinctive. At the same time, this super-sensible vision supplied what may be designated as an inner logical system. [ 3 ] If we have within us the contents of super-sensible vision, no intellectual elaboration is needed, for the human being already possesses a logical structure through his own nature. Thus we may say that in the course of human evolution intellectualism has, in a certain respect, risen out of Gnosticism. It has risen out of super-sensible, spiritual contents. The spiritual contents have dried up and the intellectual element has remained.
[ 4 ] A man with a preeminently leading spirit, who at that time already made use of the intellect (in Plato, this was not evident as yet) and who clearly evinced that the older form of spirituality had ceased to exist and that the human being now sought to gain a world-conception through inner intellectual work, this preeminently leading spirit was Aristotle. Aristotle is, as it were, the first man in human evolution who works in a truly intellectual way. In Aristotle, we continually come across statements showing that the recollection of an old wisdom, gained through super-sensible means, is still alive in a traditional form. Aristotle is aware of this older form of wisdom; he alludes to it whenever he speaks of his predecessors, but he can no longer connect his statements with any contents which are really his own inner experience.
Aristotle evinces in a high degree that things which were vividly experienced in the past, have now become mere words for him. But on the other hand, he is eminently intellectual in his way of working.
[ 5 ] Owing to the special configuration of Greek culture, Aristotle is not a Gnostic. The gnosis of that time, with its still ample store of wisdom, which continued to exist even in the post-Christian centuries, had an intellectual way of grasping the old spiritual contents. These can no longer be experienced. What the Gnostics set forth, contains, as it were, a shadow-outline of the old spiritual wisdom. We can see that humanity gradually loses altogether the possibility of connecting a meaning with what had once been given to man in a super-sensible form. This stage, of not being able to connect any meaning with the old spiritual wisdom, reaches its climax in the fourth century of our era. Particularly a man like Augustine clearly reveals the struggle after a world-conception from out the very depths of the human soul, but it is impossible for him to reach a world-conception which is based on spirituality, so that he finally accepts what the Catholic Church presents to him in the form of dogmas.
[ 6 ] The spiritual life of the Occident (and this is, to begin with, our present subject of study) obtained its contents above all during the centuries which followed the first four hundred years after the Mystery of Golgotha. It obtained its contents through what had been handed down traditionally from a Christian direction and had gradually acquired the form of dogmas, that is to say, of intellectual forms of thought. Nevertheless these dogmas were connected with contents which had once been experienced in super-sensible vision and which now existed merely in the form of memories. It was no longer possible to gain an insight into man's connections with these super-sensible contents; that is to say, it was not in any way possible to convey to the human beings the significance of these super-sensible contents. For this reason, the education of humanity took on an essentially intellectual character in the following centuries, up to the fifteenth century.
[ 7 ] The spiritual life of the fourth and fifth centuries of our era, up to the fifteenth century, with all the experiences connected with that time—starting with the first Fathers of the Church up to Duns Scotus and then Thomas Aquinas and Albertus Magnus—the spiritual life of those centuries and all the experiences connected with that time, arouse our interest not so much in view of the contents which have been transmitted to us, as in view of the thoroughly significant training through which the human beings had to pass, so that their soul-constitution was directed towards intellectualism. In regard to intellectual matters, in regard to the elaboration of conceptual matters, the Christian philosophers have reached the very climax. We may say, on the one hand, that intellectualism was fully born at the end of the fourth century of our era, but we may also say that intellectualism, as a technique, as a technical method of thinking, evolved up to the fifteenth century. That human beings were at all able to grasp this intellectual element, is a fact which took place in the fourth century. But to begin with, intellectualism had to be elaborated inwardly, and what was achieved in this direction, up to the time of high Scholasticism, is truly admirable.
[ 8 ] Modern thinkers could really learn a great deal in this connection, if they would train their capacity of forming concepts by studying the conceptual technique which was unfolded by the scholastic thinkers of the Catholic Church. If we observe the disorderly way of thinking which is customary in modern science, if we observe how certain ideas which are indispensable for the attainment of a world-conception (for instance, the idea of subsistence in connection with existence) have altogether disappeared, particularly in regard to their inner character, if we observe how concepts such as “hypothesis” have acquired an entirely indistinct character, whereas for the scholastics it was a conceptual form with clearly defined outlines, if we observe many other things which could be adduced in this direction, we shall realise that the ordinary modern life of the spirit does not possess a real technique of thinking. How many things could be learnt if we would once more become acquainted with what has been developed up to the fifteenth century as a technique of thinking, that is to say, as a technique of intellectualism! Thinkers who have had a training in this sphere are so superior to the modern philosophers because they have taken up within them the scholastic element.
[ 9 ] Indeed, after the disorderly thoughts contained in modern scientific writings, it does one good to take hold of a book such as Willmann's “History of Idealism”. Of course, at the present time we cannot agree with the contents of Willmann's book, for it contains things which we cannot accept, nevertheless it reveals a thinking activity which gives us, as such, a feeling of well-being, in comparison with what has just been characterised. Otto Willmann's “History of Idealism” should also be read by those who adopt an entirely different standpoint. The way in which he deals with the problems from the time of Plato onwards, his complete mastery of the scholastic activity of thought, can, to say the least, exercise an extraordinary influence upon modern human beings and discipline their thoughts.
[ 10 ] Essentially speaking, the task of the time which lies between the fourth and the fifteenth century was, therefore, the development of a technique of thinking. This thinking activity has now adopted a definite attitude in regard to man's cognitive faculty towards the contents of the world. We may say: Spirits such as Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas have set forth the position of man's thinking activity towards the contents of the world in a manner which was, at that time, quite incontestable.
[ 11 ] How do their descriptions appear to us?
Thinkers such as Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas had dogmatically preserved truths which originated from old traditions, but their meaning could no longer be grasped. To begin with, these truths had to be protected as contents of a supernatural revelation, which at that time was more or less equivalent to a super-sensible revelation. The Church preserved these revelations through its authority and teachings, and people thought that the dogmas of the Church contained the revelations connected with the super-sensible worlds. They were to accept what was offered in these dogmas, they were to accept it as a revelation which could not be touched by human reason, that is to say, by the human intellect.
[ 12 ] In the Middle Ages it was, on the one hand, quite natural to apply the intellectual technique, which had reached such a high degree of development, but on the other hand, it was evident that the intellect was not allowed to determine anything in connection with the contents of these dogmas. The highest truths required by the human beings were sought within the dogmas. They had to be presented by theology, which was supernatural, and contained the essence of everything relating to the higher destinies of man's soul-life. The conceptions of that time were, on the other hand. permeated by the idea that Nature could be grasped and explained by the unfolding intellect, and that ratio, that is to say, the intellect, enabled one to grasp in a certain abstract manner the beginning and the end of the world, that it enabled one to grasp even the existence of God, etc. etc. These things were altogether considered as forming part—although in a certain abstract manner—of the truths which could still be reached through the intellectual technique. Human cognition was thus divided into two spheres: The sphere of the super-sensible, which could only become accessible to man through revelation and was preserved within the Christian dogmas, and the other sphere, which contained a knowledge of Nature, to the extent in which this was possible at that time, and which could only be reached, in its whole extent through an intellectual technique.
[ 13 ] If we wish to grasp the spiritual development of our modern times, we must penetrate into this dual character of cognition during the Middle Ages. New spheres of knowledge slowly begin to appear from the fifteenth century onwards, and then more and more quickly; new spheres of knowledge, which then became the contents of the modern scientific world-conception. Up to the fifteenth century, the intellect, as such, had developed, its technique had gradually unfolded, but throughout that time it had not enriched itself with contents of a natural-scientific character. The knowledge of Nature which existed up to that time, was an old traditional knowledge which could no longer be grasped to its full extent: the intellect had. as it were, not been tested by contents of an immediate and elemental kind.
[ 14 ] This only took place when the deeds of Galilei, Copernicus and so forth, began to penetrate into the modern development of science, and it occurred at a time when the intellect did not merely unfold its technique, but when it began to tackle the external world. Particularly in a man such as Galilei we can see that he uses his highly developed technique of thinking in order to approach with it the contents of a world which appears to the external observation through the senses. In the centuries which followed, up to the nineteenth century, those who were striving after knowledge were occupied above all with this: their intellect was grappling with Nature, it was seeking to gain a knowledge of Nature.
[ 15 ] What lived in this struggle of the intellect that was seeking to gain a knowledge of Nature? In order to grasp this, we should not follow preconceived ideas, but psychological and historical facts.
We should clearly realise that humanity does not only carry over theories from one epoch to the other, and that the Christian development of philosophy has produced in an extraordinarily strong way the tendency to apply the intellectual faculties merely to the world of the senses, without touching the super-sensible world. If those who were striving after knowledge had touched the super-sensible sphere with their intellectual forces, this would have been considered a sin. [ 16 ] Such an attitude gave rise to certain habits, and these habits continued. Even if the human beings are no longer fully conscious of them, they nevertheless act under the influence of these habits. In the centuries which preceded the nineteenth century, one of these habits, that is to say, a habit which arose under the influence of Christian dogmatism, produced the tendency to use the intellectual faculties merely for an external observation through the senses. In the same way in which the universities were, generally speaking, the continuation of schools which had been founded by the Church, so the sciences which were taught at these universities in connection with a knowledge of Nature were fundamentally a continuation of what the Church acknowledged to be right in the sphere of natural science. The tendency to include in knowledge nothing but an empiricism based on the observation through the senses is, in every respect, the echo of a soul-habit which has risen out of Christian dogmatism.
[ 17 ] This way of directing the intellect towards the external world of the senses was more and more accompanied by the fact that the forces which the soul itself directed towards the contents of super-sensible dogmas gradually paled and died. The possibility of an independent investigation had once more arisen, and although the contents which the intellect thus obtained were of a purely sensory kind, they were nevertheless the contents of knowledge.
[ 18 ] The dogmatic contents gradually paled under the influence of contents which were gained through a knowledge of the sensory world. This knowledge was acquiring a more and more positive character. It was no longer possible to adopt towards these super-sensible contents a soul-attitude which still existed after the fourth century of our era as a recollection of something which humanity had experienced in very ancient times. What was connected with the super-sensible worlds gradually disappeared completely, and what lies before us in the spiritual development of the last three or four centuries merely represents an artificial way of preserving these super-sensible contents.
The contents which have been taken from the world of the senses and which have been elaborated by the intellect grow more and more abundant. They permeate the human soul. The habit of calling attention to the super-sensible contents gradually pales and disappears. Also this fact is unquestionably a result of the Christian dogmatic development.
[ 19 ] Then came the nineteenth century; the human soul had completely lost its elementary connection with what was contained in the super-sensible world, and it became more and more necessary for the human beings to convince themselves, one might say, artificially, that it is, after all, significant to accept the existence of a super-sensible world. So we may see, particularly in the nineteenth century, the development of a doctrine which had been well prepared in advance, the doctrine of the two paths of cognition: the path of knowledge and the path of faith. A cognition of faith, based upon an entirely subjective conviction, was still supposed to uphold what had been preserved traditionally from the old dogmas. In addition to this fact, the human beings were more and more overcome, I might say, by the knowledge which the world of the senses offered to them. Fundamentally speaking, just about the middle of, the nineteenth century, the evolution of the spiritual world of Europe had reached the following point: An abundant knowledge flowed out of the world of the senses, whereas the attitude towards the super-sensible world was problematic. When the human beings investigated the sensory world, they always felt that they had a firm ground under their feet and the facts resulting from an external observation could always be pointed out and summed up in a kind of world-picture, which naturally contained nothing but sensory facts, but which grew more and more perfect in regard to these sensory contents. On the other hand, they were striving in an almost cramped and desperate manner to maintain a survey of the super-sensible world through faith. Particularly significant in this connection is the development of theology, especially of Christology, for it shows us how the super-sensible contents of the Christ-idea were gradually lost, so that finally nothing remained of this idea except the existence of Jesus of Nazareth within the world of the senses; he was, therefore, looked upon as a member of human evolution within the ordinary and intellectual life of the senses. [See Rudolf Steiner's, “Et incarnatus est ...”.] Attempts were made to uphold Christianity even in the face of the enlightened and scientific mentality of modern times, but it was submitted to criticism and dissolved through this critical examination; the contents of the gospels were sieved and thus a definition was construed, as it were, which justified to a certain extent at least the right to point out that the super-sensible world must be the subject of faith, of belief.
[ 20 ] It is strange to see the form which this development took on just about the middle of the nineteenth century. Those who study modern spiritual science should not overlook this stage in the development of human knowledge. Men who have spoken extensively of the spirit and of the spiritual life of the present, have treated in an amateurish way what has arisen as materialism in the middle of the nineteenth century within the evolution of mankind. Of course, it would be superficial to remain by this materialism. But it is far more superficial to take up an amateurish attitude towards materialism. It is comparatively easy to acquire a few concepts which are connected with the spirit and with spiritual life, and then to pass sentence over what has arisen through the materialism of the nineteenth century; but we should observe this from a different standpoint.
[ 21 ] It is, for instance, a fact that a thinker such as Heinrich Czolbe, and he is perhaps one of the most significant materialistic thinkers, has given a real definition of sensualism in his book, “An Outline of Sensualism”, which was published in 1855. He states that sensualism implies a cognitive striving which excludes the super-sensible from the very beginning. Czolbe's system of sensualism gives us something which seeks to explain, the world and man only with the aid of what may be obtained through sensory observation.
We might say that this system of sensualism is, on the one hand, superficial, but, on the other hand, it is extraordinarily sharp. For it really attempts to observe everything, from perception to politics, in the light of sensualism and to describe it in such a way that an explanation can only be given through what the senses are able to observe and the intellect is able to combine through these sensory observations. This book was published in 1855, when a clearly defined Darwinism did not as yet exist, for Darwin's first epoch-making book only appeared in 1858.
[ 22 ] Generally speaking, the year 1858 was very trenchant in the more recent spiritual evolution. Darwin's “Origin of the Species” appeared at that time. Spectral analysis also arose at that time within the evolution of humanity, and this has given rise to the conception that the universe consists of the same material substances as those of terrestrial existence. In that year the first attempt was made to deal with the aesthetic sphere in an external, empiric manner, a subject which in the past had always been treated in a spiritual-intellectual manner. Gustav Theodor Fechner's “Introduction to Aesthetics” was published in 1858. Finally, the attempt was made to apply this manner of thinking, which is contained in all the above examples, to social life. The first more important economic book of Carl Marx also appeared in that year. This fourth phenomenon of the modern materialistic life of the spirit thus appears not only in the same period, but in the same year of that period. As stated, certain things have preceded all this, for instance, Czolbe's “Sensualism”.
[ 23 ] Afterwards, the attempt was made to permeate with materialistic world-conceptions the many facts which were discovered at that time in regard to the external life of the senses and we may say: The materialistic world-conception has not been created by Darwinism, or by spectral analysis, but the facts which Darwin had so carefully collected, the facts which could be detected to a certain extent in spectral analysis, and all that could be discovered in connection with certain things which were once investigated in an entirely different manner (this may be seen, for instance, in Fechner's “Introduction to Aesthetics”), all this was immersed in the already extant conception of sensualism. Fundamentally speaking, materialism already existed; it had its origin in the propagation of that habit of thinking which was, in reality, an offspring of the scholastic manner of thinking. We do not grasp the modern development of the spirit, we do not grasp materialism, unless we realise that it is nothing but the continuation of medieval thinking, with the omission of the idea that it is necessary to rise from thinking to the super-sensible with the aid, not of human reason and human observation, but with the aid of the revelations contained in the dogmas.
[ 24 ] This second element has simply been omitted. But the fundamental conviction relating to one side of cognition, to that side which refers to the world of the senses, this fundamental conviction has been maintained. What had thus developed in the course of the nineteenth century, then changed in such a way that it appeared, for instance, in the famous Ignorabimus of du Bois-Reymond, in the early seventies. The scholastic thinkers used to say: Human cognition, which is permeated by the intellect, is only connected with the external world of the senses, and everything that the human being is supposed to know in regard to the super-sensible world must be given through the revelation which is preserved in the dogmas.—The revelation which the dogmas have preserved has paled, but the other fundamental conviction has been retained. This is what du Bois-Reymond states incisively, in a modern garment, to be sure. du Bois-Reymond applied what Scholasticism used to voice in the manner which I have just described, in such a way that he said: It is only possible to gain a knowledge of sensory things; we should only gain a knowledge of sensory things, for a knowledge of the super-sensible world does not exist.
[ 25 ] Fundamentally speaking, there is no difference whatever between one of the two spheres of knowledge in Scholasticism and what has arisen, in a modern garment, among the modern natural scientists, and du Bois-Reymond was undoubtedly one of the most modern scientists. It is really very important to contemplate earnestly and carefully how the modern conception of Nature has risen out of Scholasticism, for it is generally believed that modern natural science has arisen in contrast to Scholasticism. Just as the modern universities cannot deny that in their structure they originate from the Christian schools of the Middle Ages, so the structure of modern scientific thought cannot deny its origin from Scholasticism, except that it has stripped off, as I have explained before, the scholastic elaboration of concepts and the scholastic technique of thinking, which are worthy of the greatest respect and appreciation.
[ 26 ] This technique of thinking has also been lost; and for this reason certain questions, which are evident and which do not satisfy a real thinker, have simply been overlooked with elegance in the modern scientific manner of considering things. The spirit and the meaning contained within this modern science of Nature, are, however, the very offspring of Scholasticism.
[ 27 ] But the human beings acquired the habit of restricting themselves to the world of the senses. This habit, to be sure, also produced excellent things, for the human beings acquired the tendency to become thoroughly absorbed in the facts of the sensory world. It suffices to consider that spiritual science, the spiritual science which is orientated towards Anthroposophy, sees in the sensory world an image of the super-sensible world; what we encounter in the sensory world really contains the images of the super-sensible world. If we consider this, we shall be able to appreciate fully the importance of penetrating into the sensory material world. We must emphasize again and again and we should continually lay stress upon the fact that the other form of materialism which has come to the fore in spiritism, which seeks to cognise the spirit in a materialistic manner, is unfruitful, because the spirit can, of course, never be seen through the senses. and the whole method of spiritism is, therefore, a humbug. On the other hand, we should realise that what we observe through our ordinary, normal senses and what we elaborate from out this sensory observation, with the aid of the intellect which has developed in the course of human evolution, is in every way an image of the super-sensible world, and consequently the study of this image can, in a certain way, lead us into the super-sensible world far better than, for instance, spiritism. In earlier times, I have often expressed this by saying: Some people are sitting around a table in order to “summon spirits”; yet, they completely overlook the fact that there are so and so many spirits sitting around the table! They should be conscious of their own spirit. Undoubtedly this spirit sets forth what they should seek; but owing to the fact that they forget their own spirit, that they are unwilling to grasp their own spirit, they seek the spirit in a materialistic, external manner, in spiritistic experiments which ape and imitate the experiments made in laboratories. Materialism, which works within the images of the super-sensible world, without being aware of the fact that it is dealing with images of the super-sensible world, this materialism has, after all, achieved great things through its methods of investigation, it has achieved great and mighty things.
[ 28 ] Of course, and in Czolbe we may see this quite clearly, the real sensualists and materialists have never sought a connection between that which they obtained through their senses and the super-sensible; they merely sought to recognise the sensory world as such, its structure and its laws. This forms part of what has been achieved from 1840 onwards. When Darwinism brought forward its great standpoint, Darwinism, which had brought about the circumstance that through Darwin's person a wealth of facts had been collected from certain standpoints, when Darwinism made its appearance, it presented, to begin with, a principle of research, a method of investigation.
[ 29 ] The nineteenth century had a few accurate natural scientists, such as Gegenbauer. Gegenbauer never became a Darwinist in Haeckel's meaning. Gegenbauer, who continued Goethe's work in connection with the metamorphosis of the vertebrae and the cranium, particularly emphasized this: No matter how the truth, the absolute truth of Darwinism may stand, it has given rise to a method which has enabled us to align phenomena and to compare them in such a manner that we have actually noticed things which we would not have noticed without this method, without the existence of Darwinism.
[ 30 ] Gegenbauer meant to say more or less the following: Even though everything which is contained in the Darwin Theory were to disappear, the fact would remain that the Darwin Theory has given rise to a definite way of handling research, so that facts could be discovered which would otherwise not have been found. It was, to be sure, a certain “practical application of the ‘as-if principle’.” But this practical application of the “as-if principle” is not so stupid as the philosophical establishment of the “as-if principle”, in the form which it took on in a later epoch.
[ 31 ] Thus it came about that a peculiar structure of spiritual life arose in the second half of the nineteenth century. In more recent times, and these do not lie so far back, philosophy has, after all, always developed out of a theological element. Those who fail to see the theological element in Hume and in Kant are simply unable to have an insight into such things. Philosophical thought has arisen altogether out of theological thought and, in a certain way, it has elaborated certain things in the form of intellectual concepts and these things had almost a super-sensible colouring. In view of the fact that the things which were dealt with in philosophy always had a super-sensible colouring, natural science began to oppose it more and more, ever since the middle of the nineteenth century, for the tendency towards these super-sensible contents of human knowledge had gradually disappeared. Natural science contained something, and it compelled one to have confidence in it, because the contents of natural science were substantial. The philosophical development was powerless in the face of what was flowing into natural science more and more abundantly, developing as far as Oken's problems, which were grasped philosophically. It is interesting to see that the most penetrative philosophy of the second half of the nineteenth century calls attention to the unconscious, and no longer to the conscious. Eduard von Hartmann's philosophy was discarded by the intellect, because it insisted upon its right of existence as a philosophy. The more the nineteenth century drew towards its close, the more we watch the strange spectacle of a philosophy which is gradually losing its contents and is gradually adopting the attitude of having to justify its existence. The most acute philosophers, such as Otto Liebmann, strive, above all, to justify the existence of philosophy.
[ 32 ] There is a real relationship between a philosopher of Otto Liebmann's stamp, who still tries to justify the existence of philosophy, and a philosopher such as Richard Wahle, who wrote the book, “Philosophy as a Whole and Its End”. Richard Wahle very incisively set himself the task of demonstrating that philosophy cannot exist, and thereupon obtained a chair of philosophy at an Austrian university, for a branch of knowledge which, according to his demonstrations, could not exist!
[ 33 ] In the nineties of the nineteenth century we may then observe a strange stage in these results of the modern development of thought-cognition. On the one hand, we have the natural-scientific efforts of advancing to an encompassing world-conception and of rejecting everything connected with revelation and the super-sensible world, and on the other hand, we have a powerless philosophy.
[ 34 ] This came to the fore, one might say, particularly clearly in the nineties of the nineteenth century, but it appears as a necessary result of the preceding course of development. To-morrow we shall continue to examine the course of this development. I would only like you to hold fast in particular, that modern materialism should be considered from the following standpoint. The things which appear in material life are an image of the super-sensible. Man himself, in the form in which he appears between birth and death, is an image of what he has experienced supersensibly between his last death and his birth. These who seek the soul within material existence, seek it in the wrong direction.
[ 35 ] The fundamental problem in the face of the materialism of the nineteenth century, if we wish to grasp it historically, is: To what extent was it justified? We grasp its historical evolution, not by opposing it, but by trying to understand what it lacked, indeed, but what it had to lack, owing to the fact that, during the time which immediately preceded it, the soul-spiritual element was sought in the wrong place. People believed that they could find the soul-spiritual by seeking it in the ordinary way within the sensory world, through reflections of one or the other kind, and so forth. But this is not possible. It can only be found if we go beyond the world of the senses. Sensualism and materialism were neither willing nor able to go beyond the world of the senses. They remained at a standstill by the image, they thought that this image was the reality. This is the essence, of materialism.
[ 1 ] Um unser neuzeitliches Geistesleben und seine Entwickelungsmöglichkeiten für die Zukunft zu verstehen, habe ich in den letzten Betrachtungen hier einiges vorgebracht, und im Verlaufe dieser Betrachtungen sagte ich, daß es notwendig scheint, den Hergang zu beachten, der sich abgespielt hat im Laufe der Menschheitsentwickelung und der dann zu der Seelenverfassung geführt hat, in welcher dieses neuzeitliche Geistesleben sich befindet.
[ 2 ] Fassen wir noch einmal einiges ins Auge, das dieses neuzeitliche Geistesleben charakterisiert. Aus den verschiedensten Untergründen heraus haben wir uns ja wohl zu der Überzeugung durchgerungen, daß der Grundton dieses Geisteslebens der Intellektualismus ist, das intellektuelle, verstandesmäßige Sich-Verhalten zur Welt und zum Menschen selbst. Es widerspricht dem nicht, daß in der neuesten Zeit das Wesentliche der gegenwärtigen Weltanschauung in der Beobachtung und in der Verarbeitung der äußeren, mit den Sinnen zu beobachtenden Erscheinungen gesucht wird. Das insbesondere soll sich uns noch in diesen Tagen zeigen. Der Intellektualismus als solcher ist zunächst im Verlaufe der Menschheitsentwickelung hervorgetreten,man kann sagen, in dem Zeitraume, der dreihundert Jahre umfaßt vor dem Mysterium von Golgatha, und er hat sich dann allmählich heraufentwickelt zu einer Höhe, über die er eigentlich nicht mehr weiter fortgeschritten ist in den drei Jahrhunderten nach dem Mysterium von Golgatha. Im Laufe der sechs Jahrhunderte etwa, kann man sagen, ist die Menschheit in diesem Intellektualismus erzogen worden. Und er hat sich herausentwickelt aus einer spirituellen Weltanschauung, aus jener spirituellen Weltanschauung, die in diesem Zeitalter, in diesen sechs Jahrhunderten zum Abfluten kommt. Man kann mit äußeren Dokumenten — darauf machte ich ja schon aufmerksam — das Abfluten dieser Weltanschauung kaum studieren, da die spätere Ausbreitung des Christentums es sich hat angelegen sein lassen, mit wenigen Ausnahmen die gnostischen Urkunden zu vernichten. Diese gnostischen Urkunden, sie sind dasjenige in der menschlichen Weltanschauungsentwickelung, das auf der einen Seite etwas aufgenommen hat aus älteren Traditionen, aus dem, was an alter Weisheit vorhanden war in Asien, in Afrika, in Südeuropa; aus dem, was eben in diesen späteren Zeiten nach den Fähigkeiten der Menschen, die ins übersinnliche Schauen nicht mehr weit hinaufgingen, da noch erreichbar war. Jene ältere Weisheit, die noch ihre letzten Nachklänge hat in den vorsokratischen griechischen Philosophen und die noch etwas hereinscheint in den Ausführungen des Plato, diese Weltanschauung, sie hat nicht mit Intellektualismus gearbeitet. Sie hat ihren Inhalt im wesentlichen, wenn auch auf instinktive Art, so doch durch übersinnliches Schauen gewonnen. Dieses übersinnliche Schauen gibt ja zu gleicher Zeit dasjenige mit, was man nennen könnte eine innere logische Systematik. Man braucht nicht die intellektualistische Verarbeitung, wenn man den Inhalt des übersinnlichen Schauens in sich trägt, denn er hat die logische Struktur durch seine eigene Wesenheit in sich.
[ 3 ] Aber eben die Fähigkeit, zu diesem übersinnlichen Inhalte zu kommen, die ging allmählich der Menschheit verloren. Und die letzte Phase war dasjenige, was in der Gnostik erhalten ist. Aber die Gnostik ist nun schon durchsetzt von Intellektualismus. So daß man sagen kann, daß für die Menschheitsentwickelung in gewisser Beziehung der Intellektualismus aus der Gnostik herausgeboren wird. Er wird geboren aus übersinnlichem, aus spirituellem Inhalte. Der spirituelle Inhalt versiegt und das Intellektuelle bleibt zurück.
[ 4 ] Der in erster Linie tonangebende Geist, der nun schon ganz mit Intellektualismus arbeitet und bei dem man schon klar sieht — bei Plato tritt das noch nicht hervor -, wie die ältere Spiritualität aufgehört hat und der Mensch versucht, zu einer Weltanschauung zu kommen durch intellektuelle innere Arbeit, das ist Aristoteles. Aristoteles ist gewissermaßen der erste wirklich intellektualistisch arbeitende Mensch in der Menschheitsentwickelung selber. Überall treten einem noch bei ihm solche Aufstellungen entgegen, die zeigen, wie traditionell lebendig noch die Erinnerung war an alte, auf übersinnliche Weise gewonnene Erkenntnisse. Aristoteles weiß von diesen Erkenntnissen. Er führt sie an da, wo er von seinen Vorgängern spricht; aber er ist nicht mehr in der Lage, mit dem, was er da anführt, einen wirklichen, innerlich erlebten Inhalt zu verbinden. Man sieht schon in einem hohen Grade bei ihm zum bloßen Worte werden dasjenige, was vorher intensives Erlebnis war. Dagegen arbeitet er im eminenten Sinne intellektualistisch.
[ 5 ] Durch die besondere Konfiguration der griechischen Kultur ist Aristoteles nicht Gnostiker. Aber in der damals noch reichlich vorhandenen Gnostik, die sich ja bis in die nachchristlichen Jahrhunderte hinein fortgepflanzt hat, ist ein intellektualistisches Erfassen des alten spirituellen, aber nicht mehr erlebten Inhaltes vorhanden. Man hat gewissermaßen ein Schattenbild der alten spirituellen Weisheit in demjenigen, was die Gnostiker darstellen. Und im Grunde kann man sehen, wie nach und nach der Menschheit überhaupt die Möglichkeit verlorengeht, noch einen Sinn zu verbinden mit dem, was einmal übersinnlich gegeben war. Vollständig ist dieser Punkt, daß man mit dem alten Spirituellen keinen Sinn mehr verbinden kann, eben im 4. nachchristlichen Jahrhunderte erreicht. Und gerade bei einem solchen Geiste wie Augustinus zeigt sich im eminentesten Sinne klar, wie er aus allen Tiefen der menschlichen Seele heraus nach einer Weltanschauung ringt, wie er aber unmöglich zu einer solchen kommen kann aus irgendeiner Spiritualität heraus, und wie er daher zuletzt landet bei der Annahme desjenigen, was ihm dogmatisch von der katholischen Kirche dargeboten wird.
[ 6 ] Inhalt hat nun dieses abendländische Geistesleben - von dem wollen wir zunächst sprechen — namentlich in denjenigen Jahrhunderten bekommen, die auf die ersten vier nach dem Mysterium von Golgatha folgen; Inhalt hat es bekommen durch dasjenige, was von christlicher Seite her überliefert wurde, was allmählich in Dogmen, das heißt, in intellektualistische Gedankenformen geprägt worden ist, was aber bezogen wurde auf einen Inhalt, der einmal im übersinnlichen Schauen erlebt worden war, der aber eben nur noch als Erinnerung vorhanden war. Aber es war nicht mehr die Möglichkeit vorhanden, die Verbindung des Menschen mit diesem übersinnlichen Inhalte zu durchschauen, das heißt, den Sinn dieses übersinnlichen Inhaltes irgendwie an den Menschen heranzubringen. Und so gestaltete sich denn in den folgenden Jahrhunderten, bis ins 15. herein, wesentlich die Erziehung der Menschheit zum Intellektualismus aus.
[ 7 ] Wer das Geistesleben vom 4., 5. nachchristlichen Jahrhundert bis ins 15. hinein verfolgt mit alldem, was da durchgemacht war zunächst unter den ersten Kirchenlehrern bis herauf zu Scotus Erigena, bis zu Thomas von Aguino und Albertus Magnus, mit dem, was da durchlebt worden ist, ihn kann es ja wirklich weniger interessieren durch den Inhalt, der vermittelt wird, als durch die durch und durch bedeutungsvolleErziehung, welche da durchgemacht worden ist zu jenem Intellektualistischen in der Seelenverfassung. In bezug auf die Intellektualität, auf die Verarbeitung des Begrifflichen haben es ja die christlichen Philosophen aufs höchste gebracht. Und wenn man sagen kann auf der einen Seite: Die Geburt des Intellektualismus war vollendet im 4. nachchristlichen Jahrhundert -, so kann man sagen: Dieser Intellektualismus als Technik, als Denktechnik, wurde ausgebildet bis in das 15. Jahrhundert hinein. — Daß überhaupt das Element des Intellektualismus vom Menschen erfaßt werden konnte, das spielte sich ab im 4. Jahrhundert. Aber der Intellektualismus mußte zunächst innerlich durchgearbeitet werden. Und es ist ja wirklich bewundernswert, was nach dieser Richtung hin geleistet worden ist bis in die Zeit der Hochscholastik hinein.
[ 8 ] In dieser Beziehung könnten ja moderne Denker außerordentlich viel lernen, wenn sie ihre Begriffsbildungsfähigkeit wiederum heranschulen würden an demjenigen, was da an Begriffstechnik die Scholastiker der katholischen Kirche entwickelt haben. Wenn man an das verlotterte Denken, das innerhalb der heutigen Wissenschaft gang und gäbe ist, denkt, wenn man daran denkt, wie gewisse Begriffe, ohne die man zu einer Weltanschauung überhaupt nicht kommen kann - zum Beispiel der Begriff der Subsistenz gegenüber der Existenz -, geradezu ihrem innerlichen Gehalte nach verlorengegangen sind, daß Begriffe wie Hypothese einen Charakter angenommen haben, der ganz verschwommen ist, während er bei den Scholastikern ein streng umrissenes Gedankengebilde darstellte, und wenn man vieles andere in dieser Richtung anführen wollte, so würde man eben sehen, wie heute eigentlich eine Beherrschung der Gedankentechnik gar nicht vorhanden ist im üblichen Geistesleben, und wieviel gelernt werden könnte dadurch, daß sich die Menschen wiederum bekanntmachten mit dem, was bis ins 15. Jahrhundert hinein an Denktechnik, das heißt, an Technik des Intellektualismus ausgebildet worden ist. Der Grund, warum auf diesem Gebiete geschulte Denker so voraus sind auch den modernen Philosophen, ist ja, daß diese Denker eben das scholastische Element in sich aufgenommen haben.
[ 9 ] Es ist geradezu ein Wohltuendes, möchte ich sagen, wenn man aus dem verlotterten Denken der neueren Wissenschaftsliteratur zu einem solchen Buche greift, wie die «Geschichte des Idealismus» von Willmann ist, mit dem man selbstverständlich dem Inhalte nach heute nicht einverstanden sein kann, der einem seinem Inhalte nach völlig widerstrebt; aber es zeigt sich darinnen eine Denktätigkeit, in der man sich eben als solcher gegenüber dem eben Charakterisierten außerordentlich wohlbefinden kann. Diese «Geschichte des Idealismus» von Otto Willmann sollte auch von denjenigen gelesen werden, die auf einem ganz andern Gesichtspunkte stehen. Denn wie da die Probleme seit Plato behandelt werden mit einer völligen Beherrschung der scholastischen Denktätigkeit, das kann zum mindesten nur außerordentlich disziplinierend für einen modernen Menschen wirken.
[ 10 ] Es war also im wesentlichen dem 4. Jahrhunderte bis zum 15. Jahrhunderte gegeben, diese Denktechnik auszubilden. Nun ist zunächst diese Denktätigkeit eingelaufen in ein ganz bestimmtes Verhalten der menschlichen Erkenntnisfähigkeit zu dem Weltinhalte. Man kann sagen: Solche Geister wie Albertus Magnus, Thomas Aquinas, sie haben die Stellung der Denktätigkeit zu dem Weltinhalte in dem Punkte, bis zu dem sie damals ausgebildet war, in einer für die damalige Zeit durchaus einwandfreien Weise klar dargestellt.
[ 11 ] Wie tritt uns diese Darstellung entgegen? Diese Denker hatten zunächst dasjenige, was ich auf diese Weise eben charakterisiert habe, herrührend aus alten Traditionen, aus alten Überlieferungen, aber seinem Sinne nach nicht mehr verstanden, als Dogmatik erhalten. Das hatten sie zunächst zu schützen als den Inhalt einer übernatürlichen, einer — was dazumal ziemlich gleichbedeutend war — übersinnlichen Offenbarung. Diese Offenbarung bewahrte die Kirche durch ihr Lehramt. Dasjenige, was zu sagen war über die übersinnlichen Welten, das glaubte man enthalten in der Dogmatik der Kirche. Und das, was man in dieser Dogmatik hatte, das sollte hingenommen werden als Offenbarung, an die menschliche Vernunft, also menschliche Intellektualität nicht heran kann.
[ 12 ] Auf der einen Seite also war es für diese Zeit des Mittelalters ganz selbstverständlich, daß man die im hohen Grade ausgebildete intellektuelle Technik anwandte; auf der andern Seite war es klar, daß diese Intellektualität nicht irgendwie etwas ausmachen durfte über den Inhalt der Dogmatik. Es wurden die höchsten Wahrheiten, deren der Mensch bedurfte, in dieser Dogmatik gesucht. Sie mußten aus der übernatürlichen Theologie entnommen werden, und es war darinnen im wesentlichen alles enthalten, was sich eigentlich auf die höheren Schicksale des menschlichen Seelenlebens bezieht. Dagegen waren diese Anschauungen durchdrungen davon, daß mit Hilfe der ausgebildeten Intellektualität die Natur begriffen und erklärt werden könne, daß man auch noch aus der Ratio, also der Intellektualität heraus dazu kommen könne, mit einer gewissen Abstraktion Weltenanfang und Weltenende zu begreifen, daß man auch noch das Dasein Gottes begreifen kann und so weiter. Diese Dinge wurden durchaus, aber in einer gewissen abstrakten Form, zu denjenigen gerechnet, die sich noch erreichen lassen durch die intellektualistische Technik. Es war also im Grunde genommen die menschliche Erkenntnis gespalten in die zwei Gebiete: in das Gebiet des Übersinnlichen, das nur durch Offenbarung an die Menschheit hat herankommen können und das bewahrt worden ist in der christlichen Dogmatik, und das andere Gebiet, das Naturerkenntnis enthielt, soweit man sie dazumal hatte, das aber erreicht werden sollte seinem ganzen Umfange nach durch intellektualistische Technik.
[ 13 ] Diese Zweiheit des Erkenntniswesens für das Mittelalter muß man durchaus durchdringen, wenn man die neuzeitliche Geistesentwickelung verstehen will; denn mit dem 15. Jahrhundert kamen langsam und dann immer schneller die Gebiete herauf, die dann den Inhalt der modernen naturwissenschaftlichen Weltanschauung bildeten. Der Intellekt hatte sich für sich selbst in seiner Technik bis ins 15. Jahrhundert ausgebildet, aber er hatte in dieser Zeit wesentlich sich bereichert durch inhaltliches Naturwissen. Was an Naturwissen vorhanden war, war bis zu dieser Zeit Altüberliefertes, wenig mehr Verstandenes. Der Intellekt hatte sich gewissermaßen nicht erprobt an einem unmittelbaren elementaren Inhalt.
[ 14 ] Das geschah erst, als die Taten Kopernikus, Galileis und so weiter in die neuzeitliche Wissensentwickelung eintraten. Da kam die Zeit, wo nun der Intellekt nicht mehr bloß seine Technik ausbildete, sondern wo dieser Intellekt sich zu schaffen machte mit der äußeren Welt. Man kann ja insbesondere sehen, wie solch ein Geist wie Galilei mit der ausgebildeten Gedankentechnik zuerst herangeht an den äußeren sinnenfälligen Weltinhalt. Das ist nun dasjenige, was dann im Laufe der nächsten Jahrhunderte bis ins 19. Jahrhundert herauf vorzugsweise die Beschäftigung der nach Wissen strebenden Menschheit geworden ist: die Auseinandersetzung des Intellektes mit dem Naturwissen.
[ 15 ] Was aber lebte fort in dieser Auseinandersetzung des Intellektes mit dem Naturwissen? Man muß da nur nicht nach vorgefaßten Begriffen, sondern nach psychologischen, historischen Tatsachen gehen. Man muß sich völlig klarwerden darüber, daß ja die Menschheit nicht nur Theorien von einem Zeitalter in das andere hineinträgt, sondern daß sich in einer ganz außerordentlich starken Weise festgesetzt hatte durch die christliche Philosophenentwickelung hindurch der Drang, das intellektuelle Element nur auf die Sinneswelt anzuwenden und das Übersinnliche nicht davon berührt werden zu lassen. Als Sünde hätte es gegolten für einen nach Erkenntnis Strebenden, wenn er das übersinnliche Gebiet hätte berühren wollen mit der Intellektualität.
[ 16 ] Das gibt eine gewisse Gewohnheit. Solche Gewohnheiten leben fort. Die Menschen werden sich ihrer nicht voll bewußt, aber sie handeln unter dem Einflusse dieser Gewohnheiten. Und aus dieser Gewohnheit — also aus einer durch den Einfluß der christlichen Dogmatik erzeugten Gewohnheit - ist der Trieb entstanden in den dem 19. vorangehenden Jahrhunderten, sich mit der Intellektualität nur an die äußere sinnliche Beobachtung zu halten. Geradeso wie die Hochschulen im allgemeinen Fortsetzungen waren der von der Kirche eingerichteten Schulen, so war die Wissenschaft, die an diesen Hochschulen getrieben wurde, in bezug auf das Naturwissen durchaus eine Fortsetzung desjenigen, was als das Richtige auf dem Gebiete des Naturwissens von der Kirche anerkannt worden ist. Das Streben, nur äußere sinnliche Empirie hereinzunehmen in das Wissen, ist durchaus ein Nachklang einer aus der christlichen Dogmatik hervorgehenden Seelengewohnheit.
[ 17 ] Parallel mit diesem Hinlenken des Intellektes auf die äußerliche sinnliche Welt ging immer mehr und mehr das Abblassen desjenigen, was von der Seele aus nach dem Inhalte der übersinnlichen Dogmatik hin gerichtet war. Man hatte eben wiederum eine Möglichkeit, selbst zu forschen; wenn auch nur einen sinnlichen Inhalt zu bekommen für die Intellektualität, so doch eben einen Wissensinhalt zu bekommen.
[ 18 ] Unter dem Einflusse, ich möchte sagen, des immer positiver und positiver werdenden Wissensinhaltes aus der Sinnenwelt, verblaßte der dogmatische Inhalt. Man konnte nun nicht einmal mehr diejenige Beziehung der Menschenseele zu diesem übersinnlichen Inhalt gewinnen, die eben nach dem 4. nachchristlichen Jahrhunderte noch da war wie eineErinnerung an etwas, was einmal in uralten Zeiten von der Menschheit erlebt worden war. Das was sich auf die übersinnlichen Welten bezog, verblaßte eben allmählich ganz und gar, und es ist ja nur ein künstliches Forterhalten des übersinnlichen Inhaltes, was wir erleben in den Geistesentwickelungen der letzten drei, vier Jahrhunderte. Der aus der Sinneswelt entlehnte und mit dem Intellekt bearbeitete Inhalt wird immer reichlicher und reichlicher. Die Menschenseele durchdringt sich damit; das Hinweisen zu dem übersinnlichen Inhalte verblaßt immer mehr und mehr. Auch das ist durchaus ein Ergebnis der christlich-dogmatischen Entwickelung.
[ 19 ] Dann kam das 19. Jahrhundert, für das eine elementare Beziehung der Menschenseele zum übersinnlichen Inhalt völlig verblaßt war, und für das es immer mehr und mehr notwendig wurde, künstlich, man möchte sagen, sich einzureden, daß die Annahme einer übersinnlichen Welt dennoch eine Bedeutung habe. Und so bildete sich namentlich im 19. Jahrhundert die allerdings schon vorher gut vorbereitete Lehre heraus von den zwei Erkenntniswegen: dem Wege des Wissens und dem Wege des Glaubens. Eine ganz und gar auf bloße subjektive Überzeugung gebaute Glaubenserkenntnis sollte noch dasjenige stützen, was sich traditionell von der alten Dogmatik erhalten hatte. Daneben war man immer mehr und mehr, ich möchte sagen, überwältigt von demjenigen, was die Sinneswelt an Erkenntnissen dargeboten hat. So war im Grunde genommen die Lage der Entwickelung der europäischen Geisteswelt gerade um die Mitte des 19. Jahrhunderts: reich fließende Erkenntnis der Sinneswelt, problematische Stellung zu der übersinnlichen Welt. Während man beim Forschen in der Sinneswelt überall Grund und Boden unter den Füßen hatte, während man überall hinweisen konnte auf die Tatsachen, die sich eben aus der äußeren Beobachtung ergaben und die man zusammenfassen konnte zu einer Art von Weltbild, das allerdings nur sinnliche Inhalte enthielt, das aber doch sich immer mehr und mehr vervollständigte mit Bezug auf diese sinnlichen Inhalte, war es eine Art krampfhaften Bestrebens, eine Glaubensübersicht festzuhalten von dem Übersinnlichen. Und besonders bemerkenswert in dieser Beziehung ist die Entwickelung der Theologie im 19. Jahrhundert, namentlich der Christologie, bei der man sieht, wie nach und nach eigentlich aller übersinnlicher Inhalt des ChristusBegriffes verlorengeht und zuletzt nichts anderes übrig bleibt als der in der Sinneswelt anwesende Jesus von Nazareth, dasjenige, was also im gewöhnlichen Sinnes- und im intellektualistischen Sinnenleben als ein Mitglied der Menschheitsentwickelung betrachtet werden konnte. Und es entstanden diejenigen Bestrebungen, die nun versuchten, das Christentum auch gegenüber der modernen Aufklärung und Wissenschaftlichkeit zu halten, indem sie es ja durchkritisierten, bei dieser Durchkritisierung auflösten, den Evangelieninhalt siebten und dadurch in gewisser Weise wenigstens eine Berechtigung herausdefinierten für den Glaubenshinweis auf eine übersinnliche Welt.
[ 20 ] Es ist nun merkwürdig, welche Gestalt diese Entwickelung gerade in der Mitte des 19. Jahrhunderts angenommen hat. Gerade derjenige, der sich mit moderner Geisteswissenschaft beschäftigt, darf dieses Entwickelungsstadium menschlicher Erkenntnis nicht übersehen. Bei denen, die in der neueren Zeit vielfach über Geist und Geistesleben sprachen, wird in dilettantischer Weise abgefertigt, was in der Mitte des 19. Jahrhunderts in der Menschheitsentwickelung heraufgekommen ist als Materialismus. Gewiß, bei diesem Materialismus stehenzubleiben, ist eine Oberflächlichkeit; aber eine noch größere Oberflächlichkeit ist, sich zu diesem Materialismus dilettantisch zu verhalten. Es ist ja verhältnismäßig leicht, sich einige Begriffe von Geist und Geistesleben anzueignen und dann abzusprechen über dasjenige, was im Materialismus des 19. Jahrhunderts heraufgezogen ist; aber man muß die Sache von einem andern Gesichtspunkte aus betrachten.
[ 21 ] Wahr ist es, daß zum Beispiel ein solcher Denker - und er ist in der Reihe der materialistischen Denker vielleicht einer der allerhervorragendsten — wie Heinrich Czolbe 1855 in seinem Buch «Neue Darstellung des Sensualismus. Ein Entwurf» diesen Sensualismus geradezu dadurch definiert hat, daß er sagte: Dieser Sensualismus bedeutet ein Erkenntnisstreben, das von vorneherein das Übersinnliche ausschließt. - So daß man also in dem Czolbeschen System des Sensualismus etwas vor sich hat, was aus dem rein in der sinnlichen Beobachtung Gegebenen die Welt und auch die Menschen erklären will. Gerade dieses System des Sensualismus ist, man möchte sagen, auf der einen Seite oberflächlich, auf der andern Seite außerordentlich scharfsinnig. Es wird wirklich da der Versuch gemacht, von der Wahrnehmung angefangen bis herauf in die Politik, alles in das Zeichen des Sensualismus zu rücken, alles so darzustellen, als wenn man es eben erklären könnte aus dem, was Sinne beobachten können und was der Intellekt aus diesen Sinnesbeobachtungen sich erkombinieren kann. 1855 ist dieses Buch erschienen, also in der Zeit, in der es noch nicht einen ausgesprochenen Darwinismus gegeben hat, denn Darwins erstes epochemachendes Werk ist ja erst 1859 erschienen.
[ 22 ] Dieses Jahr 1859 war überhaupt, wie ich schon öfter angedeutet habe, außerordentlich einschneidend in der neueren Geistesentwickelung. Wir haben um diese Zeit erscheinend Darwins «Entstehung der Arten durch natürliche Zuchtwahl». Wir haben in dieser Zeit heraufkommend in der Menschheitsentwickelung die Spektralanalyse, von der ja die Anschauung ausgegangen ist, daß aus denselben Materialsubstanzen, aus denen das irdische Dasein besteht, das Weltenall auch besteht. Wir haben dann den Versuch, dasjenige zu erfassen, was früher immer auf geistig-intellektuelle Weise behandelt worden ist, das ästhetische Gebiet, durch äußerliche, sinnliche Empirie. Gustav Theodor Fechners «Vorschule der Ästhetik» erschien 1876. Und endlich, wir haben den Versuch, diese Denkweise, die in all dem Angeführten liegt, zu übertragen auf das soziale Leben. Karl Marxens erstes größeres ökonomisches Werk erschien ebenfalls in diesem Jahre 1859. Diese vierte Erscheinung des neuzeitlichen materialistischen Geisteslebens, sie fällt bis auf das Jahr in dieselbe Zeit. Aber wie gesagt, vorangegangen ist schon so etwas, wie Czolbes System des Sensualismus war.
[ 23 ] Wenn dann versucht worden ist, alles dasjenige, was seit jener Zeit reichlich an Tatsachen des äußeren Sinneslebens erkundet worden ist, mit materialistischen Weltanschauungen zu durchdringen, so darf man sagen: Diese materialistische Weltanschauung ist nicht geschaffen worden etwa durch den Darwinismus oder durch die Spektralanalyse, sondern dasjenige, was Darwin so sorgfältig zusammengetragen hat, das, was durchschaut werden konnte bis zu einem gewissen Grade in der Spektralanalyse, das, was erforscht werden konnte von Dingen selbst, die man früher nur auf ganz anderem Wege erforschen wollte, wie es durch Fechners «Vorschule der Ästhetik» geschehen ist, das ist getaucht worden in die schon vorhandene Anschauung des Sensualismus. Und der Materialismus, er war im Grunde genommen schon da; aber er ist hervorgegangen aus der Fortpflanzung jener Denkgewohnheit, die eigentlich ein Kind der scholastischen Denkweise ist. Man versteht diese neuzeitliche Geistesentwickelung und man versteht auch den Materialismus nicht, wenn man sich nicht klar darüber ist, daß er nichts anderes ist als eine Fortsetzung mittelalterlichen Denkens, nur mit Weglassung der Anschauung, daß man aufsteigen müsse vom Denken zu dem, was übersinnlich ist, eben nicht durch menschliche Vernunft und menschliche Beobachtung, sondern durch Offenbarung, die in der Dogmatik gegeben ist.
[ 24 ] Dieses Zweite hat man einfach weggelassen. Aber die Grundüberzeugung für den einen Teil des Erkennens, für den auf die Sinneswelt bezüglichen, hat man beibehalten. Und im Verlaufe des 19. Jahrhunderts verwandelte sich dasjenige, was sich da herausgebildet hatte, dann so, daß es erschien zum Beispiel in dem berühmten «Ignorabimus» von Du Bois-Reymond aus dem Anfang der siebziger Jahre. Der Scholastiker sagte: Die menschliche Erkenntnis, von Intellekt durchdrungen, bezieht sich nur auf die äußere Sinneswelt. Alles dasjenige, was der Mensch über das Übersinnliche erkennen soll,muß ihm gegeben werden durch Offenbarung, die in der Dogmatik bewahrt ist. - Diese Offenbarung, die in der Dogmatik bewahrt ist, verblaßt; aber die andere Grundüberzeugung wird beibehalten. Sie spricht Du BoisReymond, allerdings in neuzeitlichem Gewande, scharf aus. Und er wendet dann dasjenige, was in der Scholastik so geklungen hat, wie ich es eben jetzt gesagt habe, in der Art an, daß er sagt: Man kann nur das Sinnliche erkennen, soll nur das Sinnliche erkennen, denn ein Erkennen des Übersinnlichen gibt es nicht.
[ 25 ] Im Grunde genommen ist kein Unterschied zwischen dem einen Gebiete des Erkennens der Scholastik und demjenigen, was da, allerdings in neuzeitlichem Gewande, bei den modernen Naturforschern — und DuBois-Reymond war gewiß einer der modernsten — hervorgetreten ist. Es ist wirklich ganz besonders wichtig, dieses Hervorgehen der neueren Naturanschauung aus der Scholastik ernsthaft anzuschauen, weil man immer glaubt, diese neuere Naturwissenschaft hätte sich im Gegensatze zur Scholastik gebildet. Wirklich, ebensowenig wie die neueren Universitäten in ihrer Struktur verleugnen können ihr Hervorgehen aus christlichen Unterrichtsanstalten des Mittelalters, ebensowenig kann die Struktur des neueren wissenschaftlichen Denkens ihr Hervorgehen aus der Scholastik verleugnen, von der sie nur etwas abgestreift hat, wie ich vorhin sagte, eine bis ins höchst Anerkennenswerte gehende Ausarbeitung der Begriffe und der Denktechnik.
[ 26 ] Diese Denktechnik ist auch verlorengegangen; daher werden gewisse Dinge, die sich da ergeben und die für den wirklichen Denker unbefriedigend sind, in der modernen naturwissenschaftlichen Erwägungsweise mit Eleganz übergangen. Aber dasjenige, was als Geist, als Sinn lebt in dieser modernen Naturerkenntnis, ist Kind der Scholastik.
[ 27 ] Nun war eben die Gewohnheit, sich auf das Sinnliche zu beschränken, da. Aber diese Gewohnheit hat ja auch durchaus Gutes gestiftet, denn’ sie brachte die Neigung hervor, sich nun eingehend mit den Tatsachen der sinnlichen Welt zu beschäftigen. Man braucht nur zu bedenken, daß ja für die neuere Geisteswissenschaft, für die anthroposophisch orientierte Geisteswissenschaft die sinnliche Welt ein Abbild ist der übersinnlichen, daß wirklich in demjenigen, was einem in der sinnlichen Welt entgegentritt, die Bilder des Übersinnlichen enthalten sind, dann wird man die Tragweite des Eindringens in die sinnlichmaterielle Welt durchaus würdigen können. Während man immer wieder betonen muß, daß jene andere Art des Materialismus, die als Spiritismus hervorgetreten ist und die auf materielle Art den Geist erkennen möchte, etwas Unfruchtbares ist, weil der Geist natürlich niemals sinnlich anschaulich werden kann und daher die ganze Methodik schon ein Humbug ist, muß man sich klar sein darüber, daß dasjenige, was mit den gewöhnlichen normalen Sinnen des Menschen beobachtet und mit dem in der Menschheitsentwickelung herangebildeten Intellekt erkombiniert worden ist aus dem sinnlichen Beobachten, durchaus eben Abbild der übersinnlichen Welt ist, und daß daher ein Studium dieses Abbildes in einer gewissen Beziehung durchaus besser in die übersinnliche Welt hineinführt als zum Beispiel der Spiritismus. Ich habe das in früheren Zeiten oftmals so ausgedrückt, daß ich sagte: Da setzen sich die Menschen um einen Tisch herum und zitieren Geister und sehen ganz ab davon, daß so und so viel Geister ja um den Tisch herumsitzen! Sie sollen sich bewußt sein ihres eigenen Geistes: der stellt ganz gewiß dasjenige dar, was sie suchen sollen. Aber weil sie diesen eigenen Geist vergessen, weil sie nicht diesen eigenen Geist erfassen mögen, suchen sie den Geist auf eine äußerlich materielle Weise durch allerlei den Laboratoriumsversuchen nachgeäffte spiritistische Experimente. — Dieser Materialismus, der also arbeitet in den Bildern des Übersinnlichen, ohne daß er sich dessen bewußt ist, daß er es mit Bildern des Übersinnlichen zu tun hat, dieser Materialismus hat mit Bezug auf seine Forschungsmethodik eben doch Großes geleistet, Großes und Gewaltiges geleistet.
[ 28 ] Gewiß, es war niemals bei den eigentlichen Sensualisten oder Materialisten das Bestreben vorhanden - und bei Czolbe sieht man das schon ganz genau -, das Sinnenfällig-Gegebene auf ein Übersinnliches irgendwie zu beziehen; aber es war das Bestreben vorhanden, das Sinnliche als solches in seiner Struktur, in seiner Gesetzmäßigkeit zu erkennen. Wenn man vergleicht, was noch in der ersten Hälfte des 19. Jahrhunderts vorhanden ist an Zusammenfassung von sinnlichen Tatsachen, so muß man sagen, es ist noch Stückwerk gegen die Arbeit, die etwa von den vierziger Jahren im 19. Jahrhundert ab geleistet wird. Und als dann gar mit einem großen Gesichtspunkt der Darwinismus auftrat, der Darwinismus, der jedenfalls in der Person Darwins selbst das gebracht hat, daß eine Fülle von Tatsachen unter gewissen Gesichtspunkten zusammengegliedert worden ist, da zeigte sich, daß zunächst ein Prinzip des Suchens, eine Methode desSuchens dadurch gegeben war.
[ 29 ] Es hat vorsichtige Naturforscher im 19. Jahrhundert gegeben, wie zum Beispiel den Naturforscher Gegenbaur. Gegenbaur ist niemals vollständig zum Darwinisten etwa im Haeckelschen Sinne geworden. Aber was Gegenbaur, der ja auch die Arbeit Goethes mit Bezug auf die Umwandelung der Wirbelknochen, Schädelknochen, fortgesetzt hat, ganz besonders betont hat, das ist, daß, wie es auch stehen mag um die Wahrheit, um die absolute Wahrheit des Darwinismus, er eine Methode heraufgebracht hat, durch die man dazu gelangt ist, die Erscheinungen so aneinanderzureihen und miteinander zu vergleichen, daß man tatsächlich bemerkt hat, was man ohne diese Methode, ohne einen Darwinismus eben, nicht bemerkt hätte.
[ 30 ] Gegenbaur meinte etwa: Wenn auch alles dasjenige, was an Darwinistischer Theorie vorhanden ist, einmal verschwindet, diese Darwinistische Theorie hat eine gewisse Art, die Forschung zu handhaben, hervorgebracht, so daß man Tatsachen gefunden hat, die man ohne diese Handhabung nicht gefunden hätte. Es war allerdings eine gewisse praktische Anwendung des «Als-Ob-Prinzips». Allein diese praktische Anwendung des Als-Ob-Prinzips ist ja nicht so töricht wie die philosophische Festsetzung des Als-Ob-Prinzips, wie sie dann in der späteren Zeit aufgetreten ist.
[ 31 ] Und so konnte es kommen, daß in der zweiten Hälfte des 19. Jahrhunderts eigentlich eine merkwürdige Struktur des Geisteslebens sich ergab. Die Philosophie hatte sich ja in der letzteren Zeit - und diese letztere Zeit geht gar nicht weit zurück - im Grunde immer aus dem Theologischen heraus ergeben. Wer in Hume und Kant nicht mehr das theologische Element sieht, der kann eben so etwas nicht durchschauen. Das Philosophische ist durchaus aus dem Theologischen hervorgegangen, hat in einer gewissen Weise in intellektuellen Begriffen dasjenige verarbeitet, was so halb ins Übersinnliche hinaufschillerte. Und weil es noch immer ein ins Übersinnliche Hinaufschillerndes war, was die Philosophie behandelt hat, so machte ihr die Naturwissenschaft von der Mitte des 19. Jahrhunderts an immer mehr und mehr den Krieg. Es war ja einmal verblaßt die Hinneigung zu diesem übersinnlichen Gehalte der menschlichen Erkenntnis. Die Naturwissenschaft hatte Gehalt. Zu ihr mußte man Vertrauen haben. In ihr hatte man etwas Substantielles. Und demgegenüber, was da immer reichlicher in der Naturwissenschaft quoll und was sich allerdings bis zu manchmal skeptisch erfaßten philosophischen Problemen hin entwickelte, demgegenüber stand eigentlich die philosophische Entwickelung machtlos da. Und es ist ja interessant, daß die eindringlichste Philosophie in der zweiten Hälfte des 19. Jahrhunderts auf das Unbewußte, nicht mehr auf das Bewußte, hinweisen mußte. Also aus dem Intellekt herausgeworfen wurde die Philosophie Eduard von Hartmanns, weil sie überhaupt noch bestehen wollte als Philosophie. Und so haben wir denn das merkwürdige Schauspiel - je mehr das 19. Jahrhundert sich zum Ende neigt, haben wir das merkwürdige Schauspiel -, daß die Philosophie immer inhaltsloser und inhaltsloser wurde, daß sie immer mehr und mehr in das Bestreben verfiel, eigentlich ihr Dasein noch zu rechtfertigen. Denn die scharfsinnigsten Philosophen wie etwa Otto Liebmann, die sind ja vorzugsweise bestrebt, das Dasein der Philosophie noch etwas zu rechtfertigen.
[ 32 ] Aber es ist gar keine so geringe Verwandtschaft zwischen einem solchen Philosophen wie Otto Liebmann, der noch das Dasein der Philosophie rechtfertigen will, und einem solchen Philosophen, der das Buch schrieb: «Das Ganze der Philosophie und ihr Ende», Richard Wahle,der in durchaus scharfsinniger Weise sich zur Aufgabe setzte, zu beweisen, daß es eine Philosophie gar nicht geben konnte, und der deshalb auch eine Lehrkanzel für Philosophie an einer österreichischen Universität erhielt für eine Wissenschaft, die es also, nach seinem Beweise, gar nicht geben kann!
[ 33 ] In den neunziger Jahren des 19. Jahrhunderts haben wir dann ein merkwürdiges Entwickelungsstadium dieses Ergebnisses neuzeitlicher Gedankenerkenntnisentwickelung. Wir haben auf der einen Seite das Bestreben in der Naturwissenschaft, zu einer umfassenden Weltanschauung vorzurücken, alles Offenbarungsmäßige, Übersinnliche abzuweisen, und auf der andern Seite eine ohnmächtige Philosophie.
[ 34 ] Das trat, man möchte sagen, ganz besonders bedeutsam in den neunziger Jahren des 19. Jahrhunderts hervor, ergibt sich aber durchaus als ein notwendiges Resultat der vorangehenden Entwickelung. Wir werden diese Entwickelung dann morgen weiterverfolgen. Ich möchte nur, daß Sie besonders dieses festhalten, daß man ja den neuzeitlichen Materialismus von dem Gesichtspunkte aus betrachten muß, daß dasjenige, was im materiellen Dasein sich zunächst darlebt, ein Abbild des Übersinnlichen ist. Der Mensch selbst, so wie er sich darstellt zwischen Geburt und Tod, ist ein Abbild desjenigen, was er übersinnlich durchgemacht hat zwischen dem letzten Tode und dieser Geburt. Und wer die Seele im Materiellen sucht, sucht eben am falschen Orte.
[ 35 ] Das ist die Grundfrage, die aufgeworfen werden muß gegenüber dem Materialismus des 19. Jahrhunderts, wenn man ihn historisch begreifen will: Inwiefern war er berechtigt? - Denn nicht dadurch, daß man ihn bekämpft, versteht man ihn in seinem historischen Werden, sondern dadurch, daß man erfaßt, was ihm allerdings fehlte, was ihm aber in einer gewissen Weise fehlen mußte, weil eine unmittelbar vorhergehende Zeit das Geistig-Seelische am falschen Orte gesucht hat. Man hat geglaubt, man könne das Geistig-Seelische finden, wenn man es im gewöhnlichen Sinne im Sinnlichen drinnen sucht, durch irgendwelche Erwägungen oder dergleichen. Das kann man nicht. Man kann es nur finden, wenn man über das Sinnliche hinausgeht. Über das Sinnliche hinausgehen wollten und konnten der Sensualismus und der Materialismus nicht. Er blieb beim Bilde, und er nahm das Bild für die Wirklichkeit. Das ist sein eigentliches Wesen. Von diesem Wesen wollen wir dann morgen mehr sprechen.
[ 1 ] In order to understand our modern spiritual life and its possibilities for development in the future, I have put forward a number of things in the last few reflections here, and in the course of these I said that it seems necessary to consider the course of events that has taken place in the course of human development and which has then led to the state of mind in which this modern spiritual life finds itself.
[ 2 ] Let us once more consider some of the characteristics of this modern spiritual life. From the most diverse backgrounds, we have indeed come to the conclusion that the keynote of this intellectual life is intellectualism, the intellectual, rational attitude towards the world and towards man himself. It does not contradict this that in recent times the essence of the present world view is sought in the observation and processing of external phenomena that can be observed with the senses. This, in particular, is still to be shown to us in these days. Intellectualism as such first emerged in the course of human development, one could say, in the period covering the three hundred years before the Mystery of Golgotha, and it then gradually developed to a height above which it actually did not progress any further in the three centuries after the Mystery of Golgotha. Over the course of six centuries, one might say, humanity has been educated in this intellectualism. And it has developed out of a spiritual world view, out of that spiritual world view that is being submerged in this age, in these six centuries. One can hardly study the submergence of this world view with external documents — as I have already pointed out — since the later spread of Christianity took care to destroy the Gnostic records, with a few exceptions. These Gnostic documents are the one thing in the development of human worldviews that, on the one hand, took up something from older traditions, from what ancient wisdom was available in Asia, in Africa, in Southern Europe; from what was still accessible in these later times, according to the abilities of people who no longer went far into the supersensible. This older wisdom, which still had its last echoes in the pre-Socratic Greek philosophers and which still shines through in Plato's teachings, this world view did not work with intellectualism. It gained its content essentially, if also in an instinctive way, through supersensible vision. This supersensible vision also imparts what could be called an inner logical system. If one bears the content of supersensible vision within oneself, there is no need for intellectual assimilation, for the content has its own logical structure through its own essential being.
[ 3 ] But the ability to access this supersensible content was gradually lost to humanity. And the last phase was what was preserved in Gnosticism. But Gnosticism is now already interspersed with intellectualism. So that one can say that for the development of humanity in a certain respect intellectualism is born out of Gnosticism. It is born out of supersensible, out of spiritual content. The spiritual content dries up and what remains is intellectualism.
[ 4 ] The spirit who primarily sets the tone, who now works entirely with intellectualism and in whom one can clearly see — this is not yet apparent in Plato — how the older spirituality has ceased and man tries to arrive at a world view through intellectual inner work, that is Aristotle. Aristotle is, so to speak, the first human being in the development of humanity to work in a truly intellectualistic way. Even in his time, we still come across accounts that show how vividly the tradition of old, supersensible knowledge was still remembered. Aristotle is aware of this knowledge. He cites them when speaking of his predecessors; but he is no longer able to connect with what he cites a real, inwardly experienced content. One can already see to a high degree in him that what was previously an intense experience has become mere words. In contrast to this, he works in an eminently intellectualistic way.
[ 5 ] Due to the particular configuration of Greek culture, Aristotle is not a Gnostic. But in Gnosticism, which was still abundant at the time and continued to reproduce itself well into the post-Christian centuries, there is an intellectualistic grasp of the old spiritual content that is no longer experienced. In a sense, the Gnostics present a shadow image of the old spiritual wisdom. And basically, one can see how, little by little, humanity is losing the possibility of connecting meaning to what was once given supernaturally. This point, that one can no longer connect meaning to the old spiritual, was reached in the fourth century AD. And especially in the case of a mind like Augustine's, it becomes clear in the most eminent sense how he struggles from the depths of the human soul for a worldview, but how he cannot possibly arrive at one from some spirituality, and how he therefore ultimately ends up accepting what is offered to him dogmatically by the Catholic Church.
[ 6 ] The content of this Occidental spiritual life — we shall speak of this for the time being — was gained in the centuries that followed the first four after the Mystery of Golgotha; it was gained through that was handed down from the Christian side, what was gradually shaped into dogmas, that is, into intellectual thought forms, but what was related to a content that had once been experienced in supersensible vision, but which now only existed as a memory. But the possibility no longer existed to see through the connection between the human being and this supersensible content, that is, to somehow bring the meaning of this supersensible content to the person. And so, in the following centuries, up to and including the 15th, the education of mankind essentially developed into intellectualism.
[ 7 ] Anyone who follows the spiritual life from the 4th or 5th century A.D. into the 15th, with all that was experienced with it, first under the first church teachers and then up to Scotus Erigena, up to Thomas Aquinas and Albertus Magnus, with what was lived through there, he can be less interested in it through the content that is conveyed than through the thoroughly meaningful education that was undergone to that intellectualism in the state of mind. In terms of intellectuality, in terms of processing the conceptual, the Christian philosophers have indeed achieved the highest level. And if one can say on the one hand: the birth of intellectualism was completed in the 4th century AD, one can say: this intellectualism as a technique, as a thinking technique, was developed until the 15th century. The fact that the element of intellectualism could be grasped by man at all took place in the 4th century. But intellectualism first had to be worked through internally. And it is truly admirable what has been achieved in this direction up to the time of high scholasticism.
[ 8 ] In this respect, modern thinkers could learn an extraordinary amount if they were to train their ability to form concepts in line with the conceptual techniques developed by the scholastics of the Catholic Church. When one thinks of the disorganized thinking that is common practice in today's science, when one thinks of how certain concepts, without which one cannot arrive at a worldview at all – for example, the concept of subsistence versus existence – have been virtually lost in terms of their inner content, that concepts such as hypothesis have taken on a character that is quite blurred, whereas in the scholastics it represented a strictly defined and if one wanted to cite many other things in this direction, one would see how today there is actually no command of the technique of thinking in the usual intellectual life, and how much could be learned by people familiarizing themselves again with what had been developed up to the 15th century in the technique of thinking, that is, in the technique of intellectualism. The reason why trained thinkers in this field are so far ahead of even modern philosophers is that these thinkers have absorbed the scholastic element.
[ 9 ] It is positively refreshing, I might say, to turn to a book like Willmann's “History of Idealism” after having been exposed to the shabby thinking of more recent scientific literature. » by Willmann, with which one cannot, of course, agree in terms of content today, which one completely rejects in terms of its content; but it shows a thinking activity in which one, as such, can feel extremely comfortable in the face of what is just being characterized. This “History of Idealism” by Otto Willmann should also be read by those who stand on a completely different point of view. For the way in which the problems since Plato are treated with a complete mastery of scholastic thinking can only have an extraordinarily disciplining effect on a modern person.
[ 10 ] So it took essentially four centuries to develop this thinking technique. Now, this thinking activity has at first become incorporated into a very definite behavior of the human cognitive faculty with respect to the world content. One can say: minds such as those of Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas clearly presented the position of the thinking activity with respect to the world content at the point to which it had been developed at that time, in a manner that was entirely flawless for that time.
[ 11 ] How do we encounter this presentation? These thinkers had received from ancient traditions, from ancient lore, what I have just characterized in this way, but no longer understood its meaning, as dogma. They had to protect it as the content of a supernatural, a - which at that time was quite synonymous - supersensible revelation. This revelation was preserved by the Church through its teaching authority. What could be said about the supersensible worlds was believed to be contained in the dogmatics of the Church. And what was in this dogmatics was to be accepted as a revelation that human reason, that is, human intellectuality, could not approach.
[ 12 ] On the one hand, it was quite natural in the Middle Ages to apply the highly developed intellectual technique; on the other hand, it was clear that this intellectuality could not in any way determine the content of the dogmatics. The highest truths that man needed were sought in this dogmatics. They had to be taken from supernatural theology, and it contained essentially everything that actually relates to the higher destinies of the human soul. On the other hand, these views were permeated by the idea that nature could be understood and explained with the help of developed intellectuality, that from reason, i.e., intellectuality, one could also come to understand, with a certain abstraction, the beginning and end of the world, that one could also understand the existence of God, and so on. These things were indeed reckoned among those that could still be attained by the intellectualistic technique, but in a certain abstract form. Thus, human knowledge was basically divided into two areas: the area of the supersensible, which could only be revealed to mankind and was preserved in Christian dogmatics, and the other area, which contained knowledge of nature, as far as it was known at the time, but which was to be achieved in its entirety through intellectual technology.
[ 13 ] This duality of the nature of knowledge in the Middle Ages must be thoroughly understood if we wish to understand the development of the modern mind, for with the 15th century, the fields that would later form the content of the modern scientific world view slowly came to light, and then more and more rapidly. Up to the 15th century, the intellect had developed independently in its technique, but during this time it had essentially enriched itself through substantive knowledge of nature. What knowledge of nature was available up to this time had been handed down from ancient times and little more was understood. In a sense, the intellect had not tested itself against direct elementary content.
[ 14 ] This only happened when the deeds of Copernicus, Galileo and so on entered into the development of knowledge in the modern age. The time came when the intellect no longer merely developed its technique, but when this intellect became involved with the external world. We can see, in particular, how a mind like Galileo's, with its developed thinking technique, first approached the external, sensory world. This is what became the main focus of humanity's quest for knowledge in the course of the following centuries up to the 19th: the engagement of the intellect with natural science.
[ 15 ] But what lived on in this intellectual examination of natural knowledge? One must proceed not according to preconceived ideas, but according to psychological and historical facts. It must be fully realized that humanity does not merely carry theories over from one age to another, but that through the development of Christian philosophy, the urge to apply the intellectual element only to the sense world and not to allow the supersensible to be touched by it had become established in an extraordinarily strong way. It would have been considered a sin for one striving for knowledge to want to touch the supersensible realm with intellectuality.
[ 16 ] This creates a certain habit. Such habits live on. Men are not fully conscious of them, but they act under the influence of these habits. And from this habit — that is, from a habit produced by the influence of Christian dogmatics — arose the tendency in the centuries preceding the nineteenth to limit intellectuality to observation by the outer senses. Just as the universities were in general continuations of the schools established by the church, so the science taught at these universities was, with regard to natural knowledge, entirely a continuation of what was recognized by the church as correct in the field of natural knowledge. The tendency to admit only external sense empiricism into knowledge is thoroughly an echo of a habit of soul arising out of Christian dogmatics.
[ 17 ] At the same time as the intellect was being drawn to the external sense world, there was a progressive fading of that which, from the soul, was directed towards the content of supersensible dogmatics. Here was another opportunity for research; and if only sensual knowledge could be gained for the intellect, then knowledge could be gained.
[ 18 ] Under the influence, I might say, of the ever more positive and positive content of knowledge from the sense world, the dogmatic content paled. It was no longer possible to gain an understanding of the relationship between the human soul and this supersensible content, which, according to the fourth century AD, still existed as a memory of something that had been experienced by humanity in ancient times. That which related to the supersensible worlds gradually faded away altogether, and it is only an artificial preservation of the supersensible content that we experience in the intellectual developments of the last three or four centuries. The content borrowed from the sense world and processed by the intellect is becoming ever more abundant. The human soul becomes imbued with it; the connection to the supersensible content fades more and more. This, too, is an inevitable result of the development of Christian dogma.
[ 19 ] Then came the nineteenth century, for which an elementary relationship of the human soul to the supersensible content had completely faded, and for which it became more and more necessary to artificially, one might say, persuade oneself that the assumption of a supersensible world nevertheless has a meaning. And so, especially in the nineteenth century, the doctrine of the two paths of knowledge was developed, although it had already been well prepared beforehand: the path of knowledge and the path of faith. A belief-based knowledge built entirely on mere subjective conviction was to support that which had been preserved traditionally from the old dogmatics. In addition, one was more and more, I would say, overwhelmed by the knowledge that the sensory world had to offer. This was the situation of the development of European spiritual life around the middle of the nineteenth century: a wealth of knowledge from the sensory world, a problematic attitude towards the supersensible world. While research in the sensory world had solid ground underfoot everywhere, and while it was possible to point to facts that could be derived from external observation and summarized into a kind of world view that although it contained only sense perceptions, it was nevertheless more and more completed with reference to these sense perceptions, it was a kind of convulsive endeavor to hold on to a belief system about the supersensible. And particularly noteworthy in this respect is the development of theology in the 19th century, especially Christology, in which one can see how, little by little, all supersensible content of the Christ concept is actually lost and in the end nothing else remains but the Jesus of Nazareth present in the sense world, that which could be considered as a member of human evolution in the ordinary sense and intellectual sense life. And efforts arose that sought to uphold Christianity in the face of modern enlightenment and science by subjecting it to critical scrutiny, dissolving it in the process, sifting the content of the Gospels and thereby, at least to some extent, defining a justification for the belief in a supersensible world.
[ 20 ] It is now curious to see what form this development took in the middle of the nineteenth century. Those who are concerned with modern spiritual science must not overlook this stage of the development of human knowledge. What emerged in the middle of the nineteenth century in the development of humanity, namely materialism, is dismissed in an amateurish way by those who in modern times have often spoken about spirit and spiritual life. Of course, to stop at this materialism is superficial; but to treat this materialism in a dilettantish way is even more superficial. It is relatively easy to acquire a few concepts of spirit and spiritual life and then to talk about what has emerged in 19th-century materialism; but one must look at the matter from a different point of view.
[ 21 ] It is true that, for example, a thinker such as Heinrich Czolbe, who is perhaps one of the most outstanding in the series of materialistic thinkers, defined sensualism in his book “Neue Darstellung des Sensualismus. A draft,» defined sensualism as follows: «Sensualism means a striving for knowledge that excludes the supersensible from the outset. So Czolbe's system of sensualism is something that wants to explain the world and also human beings from what is given purely in sensual observation. This system of sensualism is, one might say, on the one hand superficial, and on the other extraordinarily astute. It really does attempt to put everything under the sign of sensualism, from perception up to politics, to present everything as if it could be explained from what the senses can observe and what the intellect can combine from these sensory observations. This book was published in 1855, that is, at a time when there was not yet any pronounced Darwinism, for Darwin's first epoch-making work was not published until 1859.
[ 22 ] As I have already indicated, the year 1859 was an extraordinarily decisive year in the development of modern thought. Darwin's “Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection” was published around this time. During this period, spectral analysis emerged in the development of mankind, based on the idea that the same material substances that make up earthly existence also make up the universe. We then have the attempt to grasp that which had previously always been treated in a spiritual-intellectual way, the aesthetic realm, through external, sensual empiricism. Gustav Theodor Fechner's “Preliminary Course in Aesthetics” appeared in 1876. And finally, we have the attempt to transfer this way of thinking, which underlies all of the above, to social life. Karl Marx's first major economic work was also published in 1859. This fourth manifestation of the modern materialistic intellectual life coincides with the year. But as I said, it was preceded by something like Czolbe's system of sensualism.
[ 23 ] When attempts have been made to imbue the materialistic world-view with all the facts of the external life of the senses, which have been amply investigated since that time, then it may be said that this materialistic world-view was not created by Darwinism or by spectral analysis, but that what Darwin had so carefully collected, what could be seen to a certain degree in spectral analysis, what could be investigated by the things themselves, which previously one only wanted to investigate in a completely different way, as was done in Fechner's “Vorschule der Ästhetik”, that was immersed in the already existing view of sensualism. And materialism was basically already there; but it emerged from the reproduction of that habit of thinking which is actually a child of scholastic thinking. One does not understand this modern development of the spirit and one also does not understand materialism if one is not clear about the fact that it is nothing other than a continuation of medieval thinking, only with the omission of the view that one must ascend from thinking to what is supersensible, precisely not through human reason and human observation, but through revelation, which is given in dogmatics.
[ 24 ] This second part was simply left out. But the fundamental conviction for the one part of cognition, for that related to the sense world, was retained. And in the course of the 19th century, what had emerged there changed so that it appeared, for example, in the famous “Ignorabimus” by Du Bois-Reymond from the beginning of the 1700s. The scholastic said: human knowledge, permeated by intellect, relates only to the external world of the senses. Everything that man is to know about the supersensible must be given to him through revelation, which is preserved in dogmatics. This revelation, preserved in dogmatics, fades; but the other fundamental conviction is retained. She speaks Du Bois-Reymond, albeit in a modern guise, sharply. And he then applies what has sounded in scholasticism as I have just said, in such a way that he says: One can only recognize the sensual, should only recognize the sensual, because there is no recognition of the supernatural.
[ 25 ] Basically, there is no difference between the one area of knowledge of scholasticism and that which has emerged, albeit in a modern guise, among modern natural scientists - and DuBois-Reymond was certainly one of the most modern. It is really most important to take a serious look at this emergence of the newer view of nature from scholasticism, because people always believe that this newer natural science was formed in opposition to scholasticism. In fact, just as the newer universities cannot deny their structure in their origin from Christian educational institutions of the Middle Ages, so the structure of newer scientific thinking cannot deny its origin from scholasticism, from which it has only stripped off, as I said before, a highly commendable elaboration of concepts and thinking techniques.
[ 26 ] This technique of thinking has also been lost; therefore, certain things that arise and that are unsatisfactory for the real thinker are elegantly ignored in the modern scientific way of thinking. But that which lives as spirit, as meaning, in this modern knowledge of nature is a child of scholasticism.
[ 27 ] Now the habit of limiting oneself to the sensual was there. But this habit has also done a great deal of good, because it produced the inclination to now deal in detail with the facts of the sensual world. One need only consider that for modern spiritual science, for anthroposophically oriented spiritual science, the sensory world is a reflection of the supersensible world, that what one encounters in the sensory world really contains the images of the supersensible, then one will be able to fully appreciate the significance of penetrating into the sensory-material world. While it must be emphasized again and again that the other kind of materialism, which has emerged as spiritualism and which wants to recognize the spirit in a material way, is something unfruitful, because the spirit can of course never become sensually clear and therefore the whole methodology is a humbug, one must be clear about the fact that what has been observed with the ordinary normal senses of man and combined with the intellect that has been developed in the course of human evolution, is an exact reflection of the supersensible world, and that therefore a study of this reflection in a certain respect leads better into the supersensible world than, for example, spiritism. I have often expressed this in the past by saying that people sit down around a table and quote spirits, completely ignoring the fact that so and so many spirits are actually sitting around the table! They should be aware of their own spirit: that will certainly show them what they should be looking for. But because they forget their own spirit, because they do not want to grasp this spirit, they seek the spirit in an outwardly material way through all kinds of spiritualistic experiments that imitate laboratory experiments. This materialism, which works with images of the supersensible without being aware that it is dealing with images of the supersensible, has, with regard to its research methodology, achieved great things, great and powerful things.
[ 28 ] Of course, the actual sensualists or materialists never endeavored to somehow relate the given to the supersensible; but there was the endeavor to recognize the sensual as such in its structure, in its conformity to law. If we compare what was still present in the first half of the 19th century in the way of a summary of sensual facts, we have to say that it is still a patchwork compared to the work that was done from around the 1840s. And when, with great fanfare, Darwinism emerged, Darwinism, which, in the person of Darwin himself, at least, brought a wealth of facts together under certain aspects, it showed that a principle of research, a method of research, had been established.
[ 29 ] There were cautious naturalists in the 19th century, such as Gegenbaur, for example. Gegenbaur never became a complete Darwinist in the Haeckelian sense. But what Gegenbaur, who also continued the work of Goethe with regard to the transformation of the vertebral and cranial bones, emphasized in particular is that, however it may be about the truth, about the absolute truth of Darwinism, he has introduced a method by which one can arrange and compare phenomena in such a way that one can actually see what one would not have seen without this method, without Darwinism.
[ 30 ] Gegenbaur said something like: Even if all of Darwinian theory were to disappear, this Darwinian theory has produced a certain way of handling research, so that facts were found that would not have been found without this handling. It was, of course, a certain practical application of the “as-if principle”. But this practical application of the 'as if' principle is not as foolish as the philosophical establishment of the 'as if' principle, as it then appeared in later times.
[ 31 ] And so it came about that in the second half of the 19th century a remarkable structure of intellectual life actually emerged. In recent times – and these recent times do not go back very far – philosophy had basically always emerged from theology. Those who no longer see the theological element in Hume and Kant cannot see through something like that. The philosophical emerged entirely from the theological, and in a certain way it processed in intellectual concepts that which shimmered halfway up into the supernatural. And because it was still something that shimmered upwards into the supersensible that philosophy dealt with, science increasingly came into conflict with philosophy from the mid-19th century onwards. The tendency towards this supersensible content of human knowledge had faded. Science had content. One had to have confidence in it. In it one had something substantial. And in comparison with this, with what was constantly flowing in greater abundance into natural science and which developed into philosophical problems, sometimes grasped in a skeptical way, in comparison with this, the development of philosophy was actually powerless. And it is interesting that the most penetrating philosophy in the second half of the 19th century had to point to the unconscious, no longer to the conscious. So Eduard von Hartmann's philosophy was thrown out of the intellect because it still wanted to exist as philosophy at all. And so we have the strange spectacle – the more the 19th century draws to a close, we have the strange spectacle – that philosophy became more and more and more and more content-free, that it fell more and more and more and more into the endeavor to actually still justify its existence. For the most astute philosophers, such as Otto Liebmann, are primarily concerned with justifying the existence of philosophy.
[ 32 ] But there is no small relationship between a philosopher like Otto Liebmann, who still wants to justify the existence of philosophy, and a philosopher who wrote the book “The Whole of Philosophy and its End , Richard Wahle, who in a thoroughly ingenious way set himself the task of proving that there can be no such thing as philosophy, and who therefore received a chair in philosophy at an Austrian university for a science that, according to his proof, cannot even exist!
[ 33 ] In the nineties of the 19th century, we then have a strange stage of development of this result of modern thought. On the one hand, we have the endeavor in natural science to advance to a comprehensive worldview, to reject everything revelatory and supernatural, and on the other hand, we have a powerless philosophy.
[ 34 ] This became particularly apparent in the 1890s, but it is a necessary result of the preceding development. We will continue to follow this development tomorrow. I just want you to keep this in mind: that we must look at modern materialism from the point of view that what is experienced in material existence is a reflection of the supersensible. The human being, as he presents himself between birth and death, is a reflection of what he has gone through supersensibly between his last death and this birth. And anyone who seeks the soul in the material world is seeking in the wrong place.
[ 35 ] This is the fundamental question that must be raised with regard to 19th-century materialism if we want to understand it historically: To what extent was it justified? For it is not by combating it that one understands its historical development, but by grasping what it lacked, but in a certain way was bound to lack, because a directly preceding period sought the spiritual and soul-like in the wrong place. It was believed that one could find the spiritual-soul aspect by searching for it in the ordinary sense within the sensory world, through some kind of deliberation or the like. You cannot. You can only find it by going beyond the sensual. Sensualism and materialism did not want to and could not go beyond the sensual. It remained with the image, and it took the image for reality. That is its actual essence. We will talk more about this essence tomorrow.