Aristotle on the Mystery Drama
GA 34
[ 1 ] Whoever does not look upon art as idle play or as a subordinate addition to life must seek for its connexion with the deeper sources of our being. He will incline towards the belief that beautiful works of art are not to be regarded merely as creations of the imagination but as expressions of the same powers and laws of existence as are revealed to us from other realms as well. Those versed in art who have been favoured with deeper insight into the world’s secrets, they have always emphasized this.
Aristotle said of the drama that it was truer than mere historic representations, for whilst these only gave again what incidentally in the course of time had been brought about, drama described the actions of men in the way that, from inner reasons, they should and must be. Goethe named the creations of art revelations of secret laws of Nature which, without art, would be for ever hid. And Schiller’s saying is well known: ‘Only through the sun-rise gates of the Beautiful canst thou break through to the land of Knowledge.’
Beauty and truth, art and knowledge, appear thus to be only forms of expression for one and the same thing. [ 2 ] That modern men are not inclined to admit this is undoubtedly the case. The investigator of to-day is apprehensively anxious that nothing of fantasy should enter into his activities. And the artist supposes that he will fall into barrenness and pedantry if in his art he were to embody anything like an idea or a truth. It is the case that much is said to-day about ‘truth to Nature’ and ‘truth in Art,’ but probably they who speak so are also they who draw a hard and fast line between what are scientific and what are artistic truths.
[ 3 ] We shall never arrive at any solution of these questions if we do not go, back to the primary sources from whence, for the higher activities of life, men have been able to draw ideas. In this connection Aristotle gives us a remarkable example in his writings about the art of poetry. This philosopher (384-322 B.C.) sought to present the laws upon which the greatest Grecian poets had built their works. And in this he laid a foundation upon which an outlook on art has been adhered to by numberless observers. His explanation of tragedy is trenchant. Lessing, as is well known, built upon this explanation his ‘Hamburg Theory of Dramatic Art,’ and from it tried to throw light upon tragedy. Thereupon a whole literature arose to show what was really the meaning of Aristotle’s explanation. And for this there is truly a deep reason. For an essential question is raised here over the relation of art to truth. [ 4 ] Aristotle described tragedy as the representation of a complete, meaningful plot, not given in the form of a tale but through the direct activity of the persons concerned. And he maintained that in these representations would be brought about the catharsis (purification) of emotional impulses through pity and fear. This sentence has been given the most varied interpretations. Lessing says:
It all rests upon what Aristotle understood by the word pity. For he believed that the trouble which was the object for pity must necessarily be caused by what we have to fear for ourselves also, or for someone belonging to us. Where there is no fear, pity cannot exist. For no one who is either sunk so deep in trouble that he need fear nothing further for himself, nor he who thinks himself so happy that he does not see from whence a misfortune could befall him,—neither the doubter nor the over-confident will bestow pity on others. And he consequently explains what is worthy of pity and what is to be feared; the one by the other. Everything is to be feared, he says, which would awaken our pity if it were encountered by another or if it might be encountered; for we have pity for all that would cause us fear if we were to encounter it. It is therefore not enough that the misfortune of one whom we pity was unmerited or that he himself brought it about through some weakness; his tortured innocence and still more, his too heavily punished guilt, is lost for us and is not able to arouse our pity if we see no possibility of ourselves encountering his sorrows. But we do see these possibilities and they can become extremely probable when the poet does not make them worse than we usually experience them, when the sufferer realizes and treats them as we, in his circumstances, would treat and think about them, or at least believe that we must so think and treat them. In short, when the poet depicts the sufferer as being of the same calibre as ourselves. Out of this likeness comes the fear that our fate may easily be so similar to his that we may feel ourselves to be him; and this fear it is which calls forth our fear and pity.’
Lessing implies therefore that, according to Aristotle, the action presented before our eyes in the tragedy is, through the likeness of the hero to ourselves, adapted to purify us in our emotional impulses of fear and pity.
[ 5 ] Goethe has remarked that it is not a question of purification in the onlookers but that this should lie in the tragedy itself. Fear and pity should be aroused by the drama and then, these themselves should bring about a balance. The storms aroused through these emotional impulses must be laid to rest in the further treatment of the drama.
[ 6 ] People have taken trouble to find the right meaning of the expression catharsis. Jacob Bernay has shown that this word had a medicinal significance. An amelioration and removal of illness through the art of healing was implied by it. Aristotle applied this to the soul and his meaning is, that through the emotional impulses which lie hidden in the soul being driven out by the tragedy, an alleviation and liberation is brought about. It is consequently a kind of healing process which takes place. The soul is suffering from secret fear and hidden pity and the sight of the person in the tragic position brings about the healing through the pity and fear being exteriorized.
[ 7 ] This means that Aristotle set as the goal of tragedy the co-operation of the poet in the process of the evolution of the human soul. One can be quite sure of this if one thinks how tragedy is not, in itself, original. It evolved indeed from the religious drama as this was originally practised as Mystery-drama. In the Mysteries the destiny of the god Dionysos was portrayed and in this destiny the devout onlooker saw not only the god who presents himself in the processes of the outer world, but he saw also his own destiny represented pictorially. Before the Greeks placed a single hero on the stage in a work of art, the priests had sought, in the Eleusinian Mysteries, for example, to portray human fate in general before men’s eyes. A sacred way led from Athens to Eleusis. Cryptic signs placed along this road were intended to raise the soul to loftier levels. In the Temple at Eleusis priestly families carried out divine worship. The Festivals which were celebrated here gave presentations of the great world drama. The Temple was erected in honour of Demeter, the daughter of Kronos, who had borne Zeus, before his marriage with Hera, a daughter, Persephone. (Proserpina) Persephone was stolen while at play by the god of the underworld, Hades, and in consequence of this Demeter wandered over the Earth lamenting. She sought her daughter. The daughters of Celeus found her once in Eleusis seated on a stone, wearing the mask of an old woman.
She entered the house of Celeus as a nurse and wished to give immortality to her charge. To do this she hid the child every night in the fire. The mother once saw this happen and wept and mourned. Therefore Demeter was not able to give the child immortality and she left the house. Celeus then erected a Temple. Demeter’s sorrow over her lost daughter was immeasurable. She condemned the Earth to barrenness. Unless the greatest misfortune were-to befall mankind, Demeter had to be comforted by the gods. Hades was induced by Zeus to let Persephone come back to the upper world. But first of all she must eat a pomegranate by which means she was obliged from time to time to return to the underworld. So she always spent a part of the year with her husband in the underworld and the other part on the upper world. Thus was Demeter reconciled with the gods. But in Eleusis a Temple was founded in which, as remembrance, her fate was to be represented.
[ 8 ] The whole legend has a deep meaning. Persephone, who from time to time has to descend into the darkness of the underworld, is an emblem of the human soul. This soul comes from heavenly regions and is destined for immortality. She is daughter to the undying soul of Earth which is emblematically presented as Demeter. But the human soul may not enjoy its immortality without break. It must from time to time go into the kingdom of the dead.
[ 9 ] The Greek loved the world and death for him was terrible. Achilles, who was met in the underworld by Odysseus, said in well-known words that he would rather be a beggar on Earth than king in the realm of the shades. But to this commonly held Grecian conception the Mysteries were to give another-picture.
The Mysteries were to present the values of the eternal, the lasting, against the earthly and transitory. Thus in the Persephone legend the upper world represented the heavenly region in which Persephone is immortal and the underworld is an emblem of the Earth. In the beginning the soul came forth from heavenly regions, but from time to time it is incarnated on Earth. Here it enjoys the fruit of the Earth (the pomegranate) and must therefore always return again and again. This means that the soul desires what is of the Earth, and therefore is always impelled towards new incarnations. The soul of the Earth, Demeter, would like to give to her daughter immortality, and for this reason Demeter tries to refine through fire the child that has been entrusted to her, to heal it from mortality.
[ 10 ] It now came about that the destiny of the god Dionysos was brought into connexion with this drama of the human soul. Dionysos is the son of Zeus and a mortal mother, other, Semele. Zeus wrested the yet unborn child from the mother who was killed by lightning and within his own groin cherished it until birth: Hera, the mother of the gods, incited the Titans against the child. They tore the child to pieces. But Athene saved the boy’s heart and brought it to Zeus, and from it Zeus, a second time, begot Dionysos. The human spirit is symbolized in the immortal and mortal origin of Dionysos. And in the human spirit a portion of divine spirit itself is to be recognized. This divine spirit does not appear in men in its purity but clothed in the passions. The Titans are the representation of these passions. They do not allow the entire pure, divine spirit to act in men but only a portion of it. But in spite of this there exists in every man the source of the divine—the heart. Through wisdom, Athene—this is saved. The refining, the healing of the divine spirit which is destroyed by the Titanic passions, is represented in the Dionysian drama.
[ 11 ] Taken together, in the two dramas of Persephone and Dionysos, the great parent drama of man is seen as it was represented to those Greeks who were admitted to the Eleusinian Mysteries. The inner, the higher man, consists of spirit and soul. The soul originates from the immortal Earth soul, the spirit from the eternal Spirit of God. For the soul’s earthly life, Earth presents an interruption; for the spirit it presents a tearing to pieces. Both have to be cleansed from what is earthly. Earthly passions must become spiritualized. He who witnessed both dramas was to be stimulated to undertake this cleansing with his own soul and his own spirit. In the fate of Persephone and that of Dionysos he was to see his own destiny. In these dramas was presented the great self training that he was to undertake.1Edouard Schuré, the poet who wrote The Children of Lucifer, has attempted to reconstruct with true intuition and fine artistic vision the parent drama of Eleusis. This is to be found in his Oriental Sanctuaries, a work the study of which is advisable to all who wish to learn about the Mysteries. Thus a kind of parent drama is here before us. Later dramatic works are therefore a secularization of what in its origin was religious drama. Dramatic art is born from out of religion. In the place of divine heroes, human heroes were substituted, and in the place of universal passions, human passions and emotional impulses were given. Particularized human passions were presented. In the older Grecian tragic poets one still finds the basic religious character of the original drama shining through. But tragedy became ever more and more a faint after-glow of what the old religious original drama had originally been.
[ 12 ] The refining process which a human being had to accomplish in himself in order to develop from the earthly to the divine, was designated as purification, cleansing, catharsis. Through the vision of his divine models the need for and the essential nature of this catharsis was made clear.
Just as the later drama was an aftermath of the religious, original drama, so was also the catharsis of the onlookers of the secular drama but a feeble aftermath of the religious catharsis which was accomplished within the Mystery Temple. The term Catharsis remained however for that which drama itself should have for its aim.
[ 13 ] Aristotle found this name which had been handed down by tradition. Therefore one can say that his explanation of tragedy is also a feeble aftermath of what the Greek Mystery priest would have given as an explanation of the original drama. It is only to be understood in conjunction with the entire evolution of Greek drama, with its coming forth from the religious parent drama. [ 14 ] Historical evidences are naturally not to be found for what is brought forward here. Whoever finds of value only what is to be upheld by such historical proofs will naturally be discontented with these explanations. But if one does not accept the conclusions drawn here from given facts as being scientifically valid, then one would also have to overthrow the foundations for many of the sciences. In Natural Science all hypotheses, for example, about more ancient periods in the Earth’s history would have to be rejected without deductions such as these. What has been said here may therefore have value as such a hypothesis to those who cannot, through intuition, become convinced of the whole truth for themselves. But without these hypotheses Aristotle’s argument about tragedy will for ever remain incomprehensible.
[ 1 ] Wer in der Kunst nicht ein müßiges Spiel, eine nebensächliche Beigabe zum Leben sieht, der wird ihren Zusammenhang mit den tieferen Quellen des Daseins suchen müssen. Er wird zu dem Glauben neigen, daß die Werke der Schönheit nicht als bloße Gebilde der Einbildungskraft anzuschen sind, sondern als Äußerungen derselben Kräfte und Gesetze des Daseins, welche dem Menschen auch auf anderen Gebieten sich oflenbaren. Diejenigen Kunstbetrachter, welchen tiefere Blicke in die Weltgeheimnisse gegönnt waren, haben dieses stets betont. Der griechische Philosoph Aristoteles hat von dem Drama gesagt, daß es wahrer sei als die bloße geschichtliche Darstellung; denn während diese nur wiedergibt, was zufällig im Laufe der Zeit sich ereignet, schildert jenes die Handlungen der Menschen so, wie sie aus inneren Gründen sein sollen und müssen. Und Goethe nennt die Schöpfungen der Kunst Offenbarungen geheimer Naturgesetze, die ohne sie ewig verborgen geblieben wären. Bekannt ist ja auch Schillers Ausspruch: «Nur durch das Morgentor des Schönen drangst du in der Erkenntnis Land.» — Schönheit und Wahrheit, künstlerisches Schaffen und Erkennen scheinen so nur zwei Äußerungsformen einer und derselben Sache zu sein.
[ 2 ] Nun ist ja zweifellos der moderne Mensch nicht sehr geneigt, dieses zuzugeben. Der Forscher der Gegenwart ist ängstlich darum besorgt, daß nichts von Phantasie in seine Tätigkeit hineinspiele. Und der Künstler vermeinte in Nüchternheit und Lehrhaftigkeit zu verfallen, wenn er in seinem Kunstwerke so etwas wie eine Idee, eine «Wahrheit» verkörpern wollte, Zwar ist heute viel von «Natürlichkeit» und «Wahrheit» in der Kunst die Rede; aber wahrscheinlich werden auch diejenigen, die davon sprechen, eine strenge Grenzlinie zwischen der «wissenschaftlichen» und der «künstlerischen» Wahrheit ziehen.
[ 3 ] Man wird diesen Fragen aber niemals beikommen, wenn man nicht auf die ursprünglichen Quellen zurückgeht, aus denen der Mensch für die höheren Betätigungen seines Lebens geschöpft hat. Ein bedeutsames Beispiel bietet in dieser Beziehung die Schrift des Aristoteles über die Dichtkunst. Dieser Philosoph (384-322 v. Chr.) versuchte die Gesetze darzustellen, nach denen die großen griechischen Dichter ihre Werke gestaltet haben. Und er hat damit eine Grundlage geschaffen, von welcher bis heute unzählige Kunstbetrachter ausgegangen sind. Einschneidend war die Erklärung, die er von der Tragödie gegeben hat. Lessing hat bekanntlich in seiner «Hamburgischen Dramaturgie » auf diese Erklärung sich gestützt, und von ihr ausgehend die Beleuchtung der tragischen Kunst versucht. Und dann ist eine ganze Literatur darüber entstanden, wie die Erklärung des Aristoteles eigentlich gemeint ist. Und dafür gibt es in der Tat einen tieferen Grund. Es wird hier nämlich eine wesentliche Frage über die Beziehung der Kunst zur Wahrheit berührt.
[ 4 ] Aristoteles bezeichnet die Tragödie als die Darstellung einer bedeutenden und abgeschlossenen Handlung, die nicht in Form der Erzählung gegeben wird, sondern in unmittelbarer Wirksamkeit der handelnden Personen; und er behauptet, daß in dieser Darstellung durch Mitleid und Furcht die Katharsis (Reinigung) derartiger Gemütsanwandlungen (Affektionen) vollbracht werde. Die mannigfaltigsten Auslegungen hat dieser Satz gefunden. Lessing sagt: «Es beruht alles auf dem Begriffe, den sich Aristoteles von dem Mitleid gemacht hat. Er glaubte nämlich, daß das Übel, welches der Gegenstand unseres Mitleidens werden solle, notwendig von der Beschaffenheit sein müsse, daß wir es auch für uns selbst oder für eines von den Unsrigen zu befürchten hätten. Wo diese Furcht nicht sei, könne auch kein Mitleiden stattfinden. Denn weder der, den das Unglück so tief herabgedrückt habe, daß er weiter nichts für sich zu fürchten sähe, noch der, welcher sich so vollkommen glücklich glaube, daß er gar nicht begreife, woher ihm ein Unglück zustoßen könne, weder der Verzweifelnde noch der Übermütige pflege mit andern Mitleid zu haben. Er erklärt daher auch das Fürchterliche und das Mitleidswürdige, eines durch das andere. Alles das, sagt er, ist uns fürchterlich, was, wenn es einem andern begegnet wäre oder begegnen sollte, unser Mitleid erwecken würde: und alles das finden wir mitleidswürdig, was wir fürchten würden, wenn es uns selbst bevorstünde. Nicht genug also, daß der Unglückliche, mit dem wir Mitleid haben sollen, sein Unglück nicht verdiene, ob er es sich schon durch irgendeine Schwachheit zugezogen, seine gequälte Unschuld, oder vielmehr seine zu hart heimgesuchte Schuld, sei für uns verloren, sei nicht vermögend, unser Mitleid zu erregen, wenn wir keine Möglichkeit sähen, daß uns sein Leiden auch treffen könne. Diese Möglichkeit aber finde sich alsdann, und könne zu einer großen Wahrscheinlichkeit erwachsen, wenn ihn der Dichter nicht schlimmer mache, als wir gemeiniglich zu sein pflegen, wenn er ihn vollkommen so denken und handeln lasse, als. wir in seinen Umständen würden gedacht und gehandelt haben, oder wenigstens glauben, daß wir hätten denken und handeln müssen: kurz, wenn er ihn mit uns von gleichem Schrot und Korn schildere. Aus dieser Gleichheit entstehe die Furcht, daß unser Schicksal gar leicht dem seinigen ebenso ähnlich werden könne, als wir ihm zu sein uns selbst fühlen, und diese Furcht sei es, welche das Mitleid gleichsam zur Reife bringe.» So vermeint also Lessing, daß nach Aristoteles die in der Tragödie vor unsern Augen dargestellte Handlung geeignet sei, durch die Ähnlichkeit des Helden mit uns selbst zxs zu läutern, zu reinigen von den Gemütsanwandlungen der Furcht und des Mitleides.
[ 5 ] Goethe hat nun bemerkt, daß es nicht darauf ankomme, daß in dem Zuschauer eine Läuterung sich vollziehe, sondern daß diese in der Tragödie selbst liegen müsse. Es würden in der dramatischen Handlung Furcht und Mitleid erregt, und dann müsse in dieser selbst ein Ausgleich eintreten. Die Wogen, welche durch diese Gemütsanwandlungen erregt werden, müssen im weiteren Verlaufe der Handlung sich beruhigen.
[ 6 ] Man hat sich nun Mühe gegeben, die richtige Bedeutung des Ausdruckes Katharsis herauszubekommen. Jacob Bernays hat gezeigt, daß dies Wort eine medizinische Bedeutung gehabt hat. Man verstand darunter die Linderung und Hebung einer Krankheit durch ärztliche Kunst. Das habe nun Aristoteles auf die Seele angewendet, und gemeint, dadurch daß die Tragödie die versteckt in der Seele befindlichen Gemütsanwandlungen hervortreibe, bewirke sie eine Erleichterung und Befreiung. Es sei also eine Art von Heilungsprozeß, der sich vollziehe. Die Seele kranke gleichsam an verborgenem Mitleid und verborgener Furcht, und der Anblick der tragischen Person bewirke durch das Hervorbrechen derselben die Gesundung.
[ 7 ] Damit ist gesagt, daß Aristoteles der Tragödie das Ziel setzt, mitzuwirken in dem Entwickelungsprozeße der menschlichen Seele. Völlig klar kann man darüber werden, wenn man bedenkt, daß die Tragödie selbst nichts Ursprüngliches ist. Sie hat sich vielmehr aus dem religiösen Drama heraus entwickelt, wie es ursprünglich als Mysteriendrama gepflegt worden ist. In den Mysterien wurde das Schicksal des Gottes Dionysos dargestellt. Und in diesem Schicksal sah der andächtige Zuschauer nicht nur den Gott, der sich in den Weltvorgängen darstellt, sondern er sah auch sein eigenes Schicksal vorbildlich veranschaulicht. Bevor die Griechen künstlerisch das Schicksal eines einzelnen Helden auf dem Theater dargestellt haben, suchten ihre Priester zum Beispiel in den eleusinischen Mysterien das allgemeine Menschenschicksal vor Augen zu führen. Eine heilige Straße führte von Athen nach Eleusis. Geheimnisvolle Zeichen längs derselben waren dazu bestimmt, die Seele in eine erhobene Stimmung zu versetzen. In den Tempeln zu Eleusis besorgten Priesterfamilien den Dienst. Die Feste, die hier gefeiert wurden, boten das große Weltdrama dar. Die Tempel sind zu Ehren der Göttin Demeter errichtet worden. Sie, die Tochter des Kronos, hatte dem Zeus, vor dessen Vermählung mit Hera, eine Tochter, Persephone, .geboren. Diese war einstmals beim Spiel von dem Gotte der Unterwelt, Hades, geraubt worden. Demeter durcheilte deswegen in Wehklagen die Erde. Sie wollte ihre Tochter wieder finden. Die Töchter des Keleus fanden sie einmal in Eleusis, auf einem Steine sitzend. Sie hatte die Maske einer alten Frau angenommen und trat als Pflegerin in den Dienst der Familie des Keleus. Sie wollte ihrem Pflegling die Unsterblichkeit geben. Deshalb verbarg sie ihn jede Nacht im Feuer. Als die Mutter das einmal sah, weinte und klagte sie. Deshalb konnte Demeter dem Kinde die Unsterblichkeit nicht geben, und verließ das Haus. Keleus erbaute einen Tempel. Die Trauer Demeters über die verlorene Tochter war unermeßlich. Sie verurteilte die Erde zur Unfruchtbarkeit. Sollte nicht das größte Unglück über die Menschen heraufbeschworen werden, so mußte Demeter durch die Götter getröstet werden. Hades wurde von Zeus veranlaßt, die Persephone wieder auf die Oberwelt kommen zu lassen. Aber sie mußte vorher einen Granatapfel essen. Dadurch wurde sie gezwungen, von Zeit zu Zeit immer wieder in die Unterwelt hinabzugehen. So verbrachte sie immer wieder einen Teil des Jahres bei ihrem Gemahl in der Unterwelt, den andern aber in der Oberwelt. Dadurch wurde Demeter mit den Göttern ausgesöhnt. In Eleusis aber stiftete man einen Tempel, in dem ihr Schicksal dargestellt werden sollte zur Erinnerung.
[ 8 ] Die ganze Sage hat eine tiefe Bedeutung. Die Persephone, welche von Zeit zu Zeit in die Finsternis der Unterwelt zu steigen hat, ist ein Sinnbild der menschlichen Seele. Diese Seele stammt aus himmlischen Regionen und ist zur Unsterblichkeit bestimmt. Sie ist eine Tochter der unsterblichen Erdenseele, welche durch Demeter sinnbildlich dargestellt wird. Aber die Menschenseele kann nicht ungeteilt ihre Unsterblichkeit genießen. Sie muß von Zeit zu Zeit in das Reich des Todes gehen.
[ 9 ] Der Grieche liebte die Welt; und der Tod hatte für ihn etwas Furchtbares. Achilles, der von Odysseus in der Unterwelt getroffen worden ist, hat bekanntlich gesagt, daß er lieber ein Bettler sei auf der Oberwelt, als ein König im Reiche der Schatten. Aber zu dieser gewöhnlichen griechischen Weltauffassung sollten die Mysterien ein Gegenbild abgeben. Sie sollten den Wert des Ewigen, Dauernden darstellen gegenüber dem Irdisch-Vergänglichen. Und so bedeutet die Oberwelt in der Persephonesage eigentlich die himmlischen Regionen, in denen Persephone als unsterblich ist. Und die Unterwelt ist ein Sinnbild der Erde. Ursprünglich stammt die Seele aus himmlischen Regionen. Sie wird aber von Zeit zu Zeit auf der Erde verkörpert. Sie genießt hier, auf der Erde, von deren Früchten (Granatapfel) und muß deshalb immer wieder zurückkehren. Das heißt, die Seele hat die Begierde zum Irdischen, und wird dadurch zu immer neuen Verkörperungen getrieben. Die Erdenseele (Demeter) möchte ihrer Tochter, der Menschenseele, die Unsterblichkeit geben. Deshalb sucht Demeter das ihr anvertraute Kind im Feuer zu läutern, zu heilen von der Sterblichkeit.
[ 10 ] Nun wurde in Zusammenhang mit diesem Drama von der Menschenseele das Schicksal des Gottes Dionysos gebracht. Dionysos ist der Sohn des Zeus und einer sterblichen Mutter, der Semele. Zeus entreißt das noch unreife Kind der vom Blitze erschlagenen Mutter und bringt es zur Reife in der eigenen Hüfte. Hera, die Göttermutter, reizt die Titanen gegen das Kind auf. Sie zerstückeln es. Aber Athene rettet das Herz des Knaben und bringt es dem Zeus. Dieser erzeugt daraus zum zweiten Male den Dionysos. Der von Unsterblichem und Sterblichem abstammende Dionysos ist das Sinnbild des Menschengeistes. Und in dem Menschengeist ist ein Teil des göttlichen Geistes selbst zu erkennen. Dieser Geist erscheint in dem Menschen nicht rein, sondern in dem Gewande der Leidenschaften. Die Titanen sind das Sinnbild dieser Leidenschaften. Sie lassen in dem einzelnen Menschen nicht den ganzen, reinen Gottesgeist wirken, sondern immer nur ein Stück desselben. Aber trotzdem gibt es in jedem Menschen den Quell des Göttlichen (das Herz). Dieser wird durch die Weisheit (Athene) gerettet. Die Läuterung, die Heilung des durch die titanischen Leidenschaften zerstörten Gottesgeistes wird in dem Dionysosdrama dargestellt.
[ 11 ] Nimmt man nun die beiden Dramen, das Persephone- und Dionysosdrama zusammen, so ergibt sich das menschliche Urdrama, wie es den Griechen dargestellt wurde, die zu den eleusinischen Mysterien zugelassen wurden. Aus Geist und Seele besteht der innere, der höhere Mensch, Die Seele entstammt der unsterblichen Erdseele, der Geist dem ewigen Gottesgeiste. Die Erdenlaufbahn stellt für die Seele eine Unterbrechung, für den Geist eine Zerstückelung dar. Beide müssen geläutert, gereinigt von dem Irdischen werden. Die irdischen Leidenschaften müssen zu geistigen werden. Der Mensch, der die beiden Dramen sah, sollte angeregt werden, mit der eigenen Seele und dem eigenen Geiste diese Läuterung vorzunehmen. In dem Schicksale der Persephone und des Dionysos sollte er das eigene sehen. Die große Selbsterziehung, welche er mit sich vorzunehmen habe, wurde ihm in diesen Dramen vorgeführt. (Edouard Schuré, der Dichter der «Kinder des Lucifer», hat das eleusinische Urdrama mit hoher künstlerischer Anschauung und wahrer Intuition nachzubilden versucht. Man findet es in dessen «Sanctuaires d’Orient», einem Werke, dessen Studium jedem geraten werden kann, der sich über die Mysterien unterrichten will.) Eine Art Urdramen haben wir also vor uns. Die spätere Dramatik ist nun eine Verweltlichung der ursprünglich religiösen Urdramatik. Die dramatische Kunst ist aus der Religion geboren. An die Stelle der göttlichen Helden wurden menschliche gesetzt; und an die Stelle der allgemeinsten menschlichen Leidenschaften und Gemütsanwandlungen traten besondere menschliche. Bei denälteren griechischen Tragödiendichtern siehtman noch den religiösen Grundcharakter des Urdramas durchleuchten. Aber das Trauerspiel wurde immer mehr ein schwacher Abglanz dessen, was das religiöse Drama ursprünglich gewesen ist.
[ 12 ] Nun bezeichnete man die Läuterung, die der Mensch in sich zu vollziehen hatte, um vom Irdischen zum Göttlichen sich zu entwickeln, als Reinigung, Läuterung, Katharsis. Durch den Anblick seiner göttlichen Vorbilder sollte dem Menschen die Notwendigkeit und das Wesen dieser Katharsis klarwerden. Wie das spätere Drama ein weltlicher Abglanz des göttlichen Urdramas war, so war nun auch die Katharsis des Zuschauers beim weltlichen Drama nur ein schwacher Abglanz der religiösen Katharsis, welche in den Mysterientempeln durchgemacht worden ist. Die Benennung Katharsis ist aber geblieben für dasjenige, was das Drama eigentlich bezwecken soll.
[ 13 ] Aristoteles hat diese Benennung als ein Ergebnis der Überlieferung vorgefunden. Und deshalb kann man sagen, daß seine Erklärung der Tragödie auch ein schwacher Abglanz dessen ist, wie ein griechischer Mysterienpriester das Urdrama erklärt haben würde. Aber sie ist nur im Zusammenhang mit der ganzen Entwickelung des griechischen Dramas zu verstehen, mit dessen Hervorgehen aus dem religiösen Urdrama.
[ 14 ] Geschichtliche Belege sind natürlich für das nicht zu erbringen, was hier auseinandergesetzt ist. Und wer nur das gelten läßt, was durch solche geschichtliche Beweise zu stützen ist, der wird von diesen Ausführungen natürlich unbefriedigt sein. Aber wenn man die Schlußfolgerungen, die hier aus gegebenen Tatsachen gezogen sind, nicht als wissenschaftlich gelten lassen will, dann müßte man auch die Grundlagen für viele Wissenschaften umstoßen. In der Naturwissenschaft zum Beispiel würden, ohne solche Schlußfolgerungen, alle Hypothesen über die älteren Erdperioden entfallen müssen. Als eine solche Hypothese möge daher derjenige das hier Gesagte gelten lassen, der nicht durch Intuition sich selbst von der vollen Wahrheit überzeugen kann. Aber ohne diese Hypothese werden wohl die Aufstellungen des Aristoteles über die Tragödie immer unverständlich bleiben.
[ 1 ] Those who do not see art as a pointless game, a trivial addition to life, will have to seek its connection with the deeper sources of existence. He will tend to believe that the works of beauty are not to be regarded as mere creations of the imagination, but as expressions of the same forces and laws of existence that reveal themselves to man in other fields as well. Those art observers who have been granted deeper insights into the secrets of the world have always emphasized this. The Greek philosopher Aristotle said of the drama that it was more true than mere historical representation, for while the latter merely reproduces what happens by chance in the course of time, the former describes the actions of men as they should and must be for inner reasons. And Goethe calls the creations of art revelations of secret laws of nature, which would have remained eternally hidden without them. Schiller's saying is also well known: “Only through the morning gate of beauty did you enter the land of knowledge.” Beauty and truth, artistic creation and knowledge thus appear to be only two forms of expression of one and the same thing.
[ 2 ] Now, modern man is undoubtedly not very inclined to admit this. The modern scientist is anxious to ensure that nothing of the imagination enters into his work. And the artist would consider himself to be falling into soberness and didacticism if he were to embody something like an idea, a “truth”, in his work. There is much talk today of “naturalness” and “truth” in art; but those who speak of it will probably draw a strict draw a strict line between “scientific” and “artistic” truth.
[ 3 ] But these questions will never be answered unless we go back to the original sources from which man has drawn for the higher activities of his life. A significant example in this regard is the work of Aristotle on poetry. This philosopher (384-322 BC) attempted to describe the laws according to which the great Greek poets created their works. And in doing so, he created a foundation from which countless art observers have proceeded to this day. His explanation of tragedy was decisive. Lessing, as is well known, based his “Hamburg Dramaturgy” on this explanation, and from it he attempted to illuminate the art of tragedy. And then a whole literature has arisen about how Aristotle's explanation is actually meant. And there is indeed a deeper reason for this. For it touches on an essential question about the relationship of art to truth.
[ 4 ] Aristotle describes tragedy as the representation of a significant and complete action that is not given in narrative form, but in the direct effect of the acting persons; and he claims that in this representation, through pity and fear, the catharsis (cleansing) of such emotions (affections) is accomplished. This sentence has been interpreted in the most diverse ways. Lessing says: “It is all based on the concept that Aristotle had of pity. He believed that the evil that should become the object of our pity must necessarily be of such a nature that we would also fear it for ourselves or for one of our own. Where this fear is not present, no pity can take place. For neither he who has been so deeply afflicted that he sees nothing more to fear for himself, nor he who believes himself so completely happy that he does not even realize where misfortune could come from, neither the despairing nor the arrogant, are wont to have compassion on others. He therefore also explains the terrible and the pitiable, one through the other. He says that everything that would arouse our pity if it happened to someone else or were to happen to someone else is terrible to us, and that we find everything worthy of pity that we would fear if it were to happen to us. It is not enough, then, that the unfortunate person with whom we are supposed to sympathize should not deserve his misfortune, even if he has brought it on himself through some weakness, his tormented innocence, or rather his guilt, which has been visited upon him too harshly, is lost to us, is not capable of arousing our sympathy if we see no possibility that his suffering could also befall us. This possibility, however, can be found, and can grow into a great probability, if the poet does not make him worse than we are wont to be, if he lets him think and act perfectly as we would have thought and acted in his circumstances, or at least believe that we would have had to think and act: in short, if he portrays him as being of the same caliber as we are. From this similarity arises the fear that our fate could easily become as similar to his as we feel ourselves to be to him, and it is this fear that, as it were, brings compassion to maturity.” Thus Lessing believes that, according to Aristotle, the action presented before our eyes in tragedy is suited to purify us, to cleanse us of the emotional states of fear and pity, through the similarity of the hero to ourselves.
[ 5 ] Goethe has now observed that it is not important that a purification takes place in the spectator, but that this must lie in the tragedy itself. Fear and pity are aroused in the dramatic action, and then a balance must occur in it. The waves that are stirred up by these emotional outbursts must calm down in the further course of the action.
[ 6 ] Efforts have now been made to determine the correct meaning of the term catharsis. Jacob Bernays has shown that this word had a medical meaning. It was understood to mean the alleviation and relief of an illness through medical skill. Aristotle is said to have applied this to the soul, and to have meant that tragedy, by bringing forth the emotions hidden in the soul, brings about relief and liberation. It is therefore a kind of healing process that takes place. The soul is sick, as it were, with hidden compassion and hidden fear, and the sight of the tragic person causes the same to break out, thus bringing about healing.
[ 7 ] This means that Aristotle sets tragedy the goal of contributing to the development of the human soul. This becomes perfectly clear when we consider that tragedy itself is not original. It has developed out of the religious drama, as it was originally cultivated as a mystery drama. In the mysteries, the fate of the god Dionysus was depicted. And in this fate, the devout spectator saw not only the god, who presents himself in the world's processes, but also saw his own fate exemplified. Before the Greeks depicted the fate of a single hero on the stage, their priests sought to visualize the general fate of mankind, for example in the Eleusinian Mysteries. A sacred road led from Athens to Eleusis. Mysterious signs along the road were intended to lift the soul into a state of exaltation. In the temples at Eleusis, priestly families performed the service. The festivals celebrated here presented the great drama of the world. The temples were built in honor of the goddess Demeter. She, the daughter of Cronus, had given birth to a daughter, Persephone, before Zeus's marriage to Hera. This daughter had once been stolen by the god of the underworld, Hades, while playing. Demeter therefore rushed through the earth in lamentation, wanting to find her daughter again. The daughters of Keleus once found her in Eleusis, sitting on a stone. She had taken on the mask of an old woman and entered the service of the family of Keleus as a nurse. She wanted to give her fosterling immortality. Therefore she hid him in the fire every night. When the mother saw this, she wept and lamented. Demeter was therefore unable to give the child immortality and left the house. Keleus built a temple. Demeter's grief at the loss of her daughter was immeasurable. She condemned the earth to infertility. If the greatest misfortune was not to be brought upon mankind, Demeter had to be consoled by the gods. Hades was ordered by Zeus to let Persephone return to the upper world. But she had to eat a pomegranate first. This forced her to go down to the underworld from time to time. So she spent part of the year with her husband in the underworld, but the other part in the upper world. This reconciled Demeter with the gods. In Eleusis, however, a temple was built to commemorate her fate.
[ 8 ] The whole saga has a deep meaning. Persephone, who has to descend into the darkness of the underworld from time to time, is a symbol of the human soul. This soul comes from heavenly regions and is destined for immortality. She is a daughter of the immortal soul of the earth, which is symbolized by Demeter. But the human soul cannot enjoy its immortality undivided. It must go from time to time into the realm of death.
[ 9 ] The Greeks loved the world; and death was something terrible to them. Achilles, who was met by Odysseus in the underworld, famously said that he would rather be a beggar in the upper world than a king in the realm of shadows. But the mysteries were intended to provide a counter-image to this common Greek view of the world. They were intended to represent the value of the eternal, the lasting, in contrast to the earthly, the transient. And so the upper world in the Persephone myth actually means the heavenly regions, where Persephone is immortal. And the underworld is a symbol of the earth. Originally, the soul comes from heavenly regions. But from time to time it is embodied on earth. Here, on earth, it enjoys the fruits (pomegranate) and therefore has to return again and again. In other words, the soul has a desire for earthly things, which drives it to ever new incarnations. The earth soul (Demeter) wants to give immortality to her daughter, the human soul. That is why Demeter seeks to purify the child entrusted to her in the fire, to heal her of mortality.
[ 10 ] The fate of the god Dionysus was now brought into connection with this drama of the human soul. Dionysus is the son of Zeus and a mortal mother, Semele. Zeus snatches the still immature child from the mother, who has been struck dead by lightning, and brings it to maturity in his own hip. Hera, the mother of the gods, incites the Titans against the child. They dismember it. But Athena saves the boy's heart and brings it to Zeus. He uses it to create Dionysus for the second time. Dionysus, who is descended from both the immortal and the mortal, is the symbol of the human spirit. And in the human spirit, a part of the divine spirit itself can be recognized. This spirit does not appear in man in its pure form, but in the guise of passions. The Titans are the symbol of these passions. They do not allow the whole, pure spirit of God to work in the individual human being, but only a part of it. Nevertheless, there is a source of the divine in every human being (the heart). This is saved by wisdom (Athena). The purification, the healing of the divine spirit destroyed by the titanic passions, is depicted in the Dionysus drama.
[ 11 ] If we now take the two dramas, the Persephone and Dionysus dramas, together, we get the human primal drama as it was presented to the Greeks who were admitted to the Eleusinian mysteries. The inner, higher man consists of spirit and soul. The soul comes from the immortal soul of the earth, the spirit from the eternal spirit of God. The earthly career represents an interruption for the soul, a fragmentation for the spirit. Both must be purified, cleansed of the earthly. The earthly passions must become spiritual. The person who saw the two dramas should be encouraged to purify his own soul and spirit. He should see his own destiny in the fate of Persephone and Dionysus. The great self-education that he had to undertake with himself was presented to him in these dramas. (Edouard Schuré, the poet of the “Children of Lucifer”, has tried to recreate the Eleusinian original drama with great artistic insight and true intuition. It can be found in his “Sanctuaires d'Orient”, a work that anyone who wants to learn about the mysteries can be advised to study. We are therefore dealing with a kind of primal drama. Later drama is a secularization of the original religious primal drama. Dramatic art was born out of religion. Human heroes took the place of divine heroes; and the most general human passions and emotions were replaced by particular human ones. In the older Greek tragic poets, the religious character of the primal drama can still be seen shining through. But the tragedy became more and more a pale reflection of what the religious drama had originally been.
[ 12 ] Now the purification that man had to accomplish within himself in order to develop from the earthly to the divine was called cleansing, purification, catharsis. The sight of his divine models was to make clear to man the necessity and the nature of this catharsis. Just as the later drama was a worldly reflection of the divine original drama, so now the catharsis of the spectator in the worldly drama was only a weak reflection of the religious catharsis which had been undergone in the mystery temples. The term catharsis, however, has remained for that which the drama is actually intended to achieve.
[ 13 ] Aristotle found this term as a result of tradition. And therefore it can be said that his explanation of tragedy is also a weak reflection of how a Greek mystery priest would have explained the original drama. But it can only be understood in the context of the entire development of Greek drama, with its emergence from the original religious drama.
[ 14 ] Historical evidence cannot, of course, be provided for what has been discussed here. And anyone who only accepts what can be supported by such historical evidence will naturally be dissatisfied with these explanations. But if one does not want to accept the conclusions drawn from the facts given here as scientific, then one would also have to overturn the foundations of many sciences. In natural science, for example, all hypotheses about the older periods of the earth would have to be abandoned without such conclusions. Those who cannot convince themselves of the full truth through intuition may therefore accept what has been said here as such a hypothesis. But without this hypothesis, Aristotle's statements on tragedy will always remain incomprehensible.